{"id":705,"date":"2016-05-04T02:05:54","date_gmt":"2016-05-04T06:05:54","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.yookoso.com\/?page_id=705"},"modified":"2016-10-12T04:39:33","modified_gmt":"2016-10-12T08:39:33","slug":"yookoso-book-1","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.yookoso.com\/notes\/yookoso-book-1\/","title":{"rendered":"Yookoso – Book 1"},"content":{"rendered":"
\n

Yookoso! — Book 1<\/h2>\n

Yookoso is a popular two-volume textbook that is used in many U. S. Universities’ Japanese language curriculum. Overall, they are solid books for learning the basic grammatical structure of Japanese but they are a bit heavy (literally not figuratively). Thus, I decided to compile the key points covered and make them available here on the Web. These notes correspond to the first volume in the series, Yookoso! An Invitation to Contemporary Japanese<\/em>.<\/p>\n

Caveat<\/strong>: These notes have not been checked for accuracy by any professional Japanese language educator. Since they were transcribed from the textbooks directly they should be more or less accurate, but I make no guarantee.\n<\/div>\n

\n

\u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Chapter 1: \u6587\u6cd5 (\u3076\u3093\u307d\u3046)<\/h2>\n

X \u306f Y \u3067\u3059 – X is Y.
\nX \u306f Y \u3067\u306f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093\/\u3058\u3083\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093 – X isn’t Y.
\nA \u3067\u3059\u304b. B \u3067\u3059\u304b – Is it A or B?
\nX \u306e Y (\u3067\u3059) – X’s Y; Y belongs to X. \n<\/div>\n

\n

\u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Chapter 2: \u6587\u6cd5 (\u3076\u3093\u307d\u3046) <\/h2>\n

X (inanimate) \u304c \u3042\u308b (\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059) – X exists; there is\/are X.
\nX (inanimate) \u304c \u306a\u3044 (\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093) – X doesn’t exist; there is\/are not X.
\nX (animate) \u304c \u3044\u308b (\u3044\u307e\u3059) – X exists; there is\/are X.
\nX (animate) \u304c \u3044\u306a\u3044 (\u3044\u307e\u305b\u3093) – X doesn’t exist; there is\/are not X.
\n  e.g., \u3053\u3053\u306b\u672c\u304c\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059<\/p>\n

N1 \u306b N2 (inanimate) \u304c Quantity \u3042\u308b (\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059) – There is\/are Quantity of N2 at\/in N1.
\nN1 \u306b N2 (inanimate) \u306f Quantity \u306a\u3044 (\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093) – There isn’t\/aren’t Quantity of N2 at\/in N1.
\nN1 \u306b N2 (animate) \u304c Quantity \u3044\u308b (\u3044\u307e\u3059) – There is\/are Quantity of N2 at\/in N1.
\nN1 \u306b N2 (animate) \u306f Quantity \u3044\u306a\u3044 (\u3044\u307e\u305b\u3093) – There isn’t\/aren’t Quantity of N2 at\/in N1.
\n  Used to state whether or not<\/strong> people or things exist at a certain place
\n  e.g., \u3053\u3053\u306b\u30a2\u30e1\u30ea\u30ab\u4eba\u306f\u4f55\u4eba\u3044\u307e\u3059\u304b<\/p>\n

N1 (inanimate) \u306f N2 \u306b Quantity \u3042\u308b (\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059) – There is\/are Quantity of N1 at\/in N2.
\nN1 (inanimate) \u306f N2 \u306b Quantity \u306a\u3044 (\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093) – There isn’t\/aren’t Quantity of N2 at\/in N1.
\nN1 (animate) \u306f N2 \u306b Quantity \u3044\u308b (\u3044\u307e\u3059) – There is\/are Quantity of N1 at\/in N2.
\nN1 (animate) \u306f N2 \u306b Quantity \u3044\u306a\u3044 (\u3044\u307e\u305b\u3093) – There isn’t\/aren’t Quantity of N2 at\/in N1.
\n  Used to state where<\/strong> people or things exist
\n  e.g., \u5b66\u751f\u306f\u3053\u3053\u306b\u4e09\u4eba\u3044\u307e\u3059<\/p>\n

N \u306e Positional Word – location phrases (e.g., \u673a\u306e\u4e0a\u306e\u672c\u3067\u3059 – the book on top of the desk). <\/p>\n

When these location phrases are used as the location with existential verbs, they are followed by the particle \u306b.
\n  e.g., \u673a\u306e\u4e0a\u306b\u672c\u304c\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059 – There is a book on the desk\n<\/div>\n

\n

\u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Chapter 3: \u6587\u6cd5 (\u3076\u3093\u307d\u3046)<\/h2>\n

Japanese Date System<\/h3>\n

\u5929\u7687 (\u3066\u3093\u306e\u3046) – Emperor
\n\u5e74\u53f7 (\u306d\u3093\u3054\u3046) – auspicious name an emperor chooses to be known as after he dies; serves as the basis for the traditional Japanese date system.
\n  \u660e\u6cbb (\u3081\u3044\u3058) “bright” rule (1868-1912)
\n  \u5927\u6b63 (\u305f\u3044\u3057\u3087\u3046) – “great righteousness” (1912-late 1926)
\n  \u662d\u548c (\u3057\u3087\u3046\u308f) – “shining peace” (late 1926-early 1989)
\n  \u5e73\u6210 (\u3078\u3044\u305b\u3044) – “peace growing (1989-)<\/p>\n

Japanese Verbs<\/h3>\n

3 types (each type consists of two parts, a root and an ending) <\/p>\n

Class 1<\/strong> – the endings of this class are variable but always end in one of the syllables in the \u3046-column of the hiragana syllabary
\nClass 2<\/strong> – this class always ends in \u308b.
\nClass 3<\/strong> – two verbs only (\u304f\u308b, \u3059\u308b)<\/p>\n

General rule (NOT foolproof)<\/em> – if root ends in \u3044-column or \u3048-column of the hiragana syllabary it is Class2<\/p>\n

Note: there are exceptions to the rule<\/em>: e.g., \u5207\u308b (\u304d\u308b – to cut), \u77e5\u308b (\u3057\u308b – to know), \u5e30\u308b (\u304b\u3048\u308b – to go back), \u8d70\u308b (\u306f\u3057\u308b – to run), \u5165\u308b (\u306f\u3044\u308b – to enter)<\/p>\n

The three primary meanings expressed in every Japanese verb form are tense, politeness, and affirmation\/negation (in addition, different grammatical elements are added to the end of verb forms to express such meanings as ability, and probability). Japanese verbs do not conjugate in terms of the person and number of the subject. The dictionary form of Japanese verbs is the nonpast, plain, affirmative form. <\/p>\n

Nonpast, negative form:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Class 1<\/strong><\/td>\ninformal<\/strong><\/td>\nformal (change to \u307e\u3059<\/strong> for affirmative polite)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u304f<\/td>\n-\u304b
(e.g., \u304b\u304f ⇒ \u304b\u304b\u306a\u3042\u3044)<\/td>\n		\u304d+\u307e\u305b\u3093
(e.g., \u304b\u304f ⇒ \u304b\u304d\u307e\u305b\u3093)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u3059<\/td>\n-\u3055
(e.g., \u306f\u306a\u3059 ⇒ \u306f\u306a\u3055\u306a\u3044)<\/td>\n		\u3057+\u307e\u305b\u3093
(e.g., \u306f\u306a\u3059 ⇒ \u306f\u306a\u3057\u307e\u305b\u3093)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u3064<\/td>\n-\u305f
(e.g., \u307e\u3064 ⇒ \u307e\u305f\u306a\u3044)<\/td>\n		\u3061+\u307e\u305b\u3093
(e.g., \u307e\u3064 ⇒ \u307e\u3061\u307e\u305b\u3093)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u3080<\/td>\n-\u307e
(e.g., \u3088\u3080 ⇒ \u3088\u307e\u306a\u3044)<\/td>\n		\u307f+\u307e\u305b\u3093
(e.g., \u3088\u3080 ⇒ \u3088\u307f\u307e\u305b\u3093)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u3050<\/td>\n-\u304c
(e.g., \u304a\u3088\u3050 ⇒ \u304a\u3088\u304c\u306a\u3044)<\/td>\n		\u304e+\u307e\u305b\u3093
(e.g., \u304a\u3088\u3050 ⇒ \u304a\u3088\u304e\u307e\u305b\u3093)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u3046<\/td>\n-\u308f
(e.g., \u304b\u3046 ⇒ \u304b\u308f\u306a\u3044)<\/td>\n		\u3044+\u307e\u305b\u3093
(e.g., \u304b\u3046 ⇒ \u304b\u3044\u307e\u305b\u3093)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
Class 2<\/strong><\/td>\ninformal<\/strong><\/td>\nformal<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u308b<\/td>\n-\u306a\u3044
(e.g., \u98df\u3079\u308b ⇒ \u98df\u3079\u306a\u3044)<\/td>\n		-\u307e\u305b\u3093
(e.g., \u98df\u3079\u308b ⇒ \u98df\u3079\u307e\u305b\u3093)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
Class 3<\/strong><\/td>\ninformal<\/strong><\/td>\nformal<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u3059\u308b<\/td>\n\u3057\u306a\u3044<\/td>\n\u3057\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u304f\u308b<\/td>\n\u3053\u306a\u3044<\/td>\n\u304d\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

<\/p>\n

Past, negative form:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Class 1<\/strong><\/td>\ninformal<\/strong><\/td>\nformal, affirmative<\/strong><\/td>\nformal, negative<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u304f<\/td>\n-\u304b
(e.g., \u304b\u304f ⇒ \u304b\u304b\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f)<\/td>\n		\u304d+\u307e\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u304b\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n		\u304d+\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u304b\u304d\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u3059<\/td>\n-\u3055
(e.g., \u306f\u306a\u3059 ⇒ \u306f\u306a\u3055\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f)<\/td>\n		\u3057+\u307e\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u306f\u306a\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n		\u3057+\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u306f\u306a\u3057\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u3064<\/td>\n-\u305f
(e.g., \u307e\u3064 ⇒ \u307e\u305f\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f)<\/td>\n		\u3061+\u307e\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u307e\u3061\u307e\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n		\u3061+\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u307e\u3061\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u3080<\/td>\n-\u307e
(e.g., \u3088\u3080 ⇒ \u3088\u307e\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f)<\/td>\n		\u307f+\u307e\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u3088\u307f\u307e\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n		\u307f+\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u3088\u307f\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u3050<\/td>\n-\u304c
(e.g., \u304a\u3088\u3050 ⇒ \u304a\u3088\u304c\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f)<\/td>\n		\u304e+\u307e\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u304a\u3088\u304e\u307e\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n		\u304e+\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u304a\u3088\u304e\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u3046<\/td>\n-\u308f
(e.g., \u304b\u3046 ⇒ \u304b\u308f\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f)<\/td>\n		\u3044+\u307e\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u304b\u3044\u307e\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n		\u3044+\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u304b\u3044\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
Class 2<\/strong><\/td>\ninformal<\/strong><\/td>\nformal, affirmative<\/strong><\/td>\nformal, negative<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
-\u308b<\/td>\n-\u306a\u3044
(e.g., \u98df\u3079\u308b ⇒ \u98df\u3079\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f)<\/td>\n		-\u307e\u305b\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u98df\u3079\u307e\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n		-\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f
(e.g., \u98df\u3079\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
Class 3<\/strong><\/td>\ninformal<\/strong><\/td>\nformal, affirmative<\/strong><\/td>\nformal, negative<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u3059\u308b<\/td>\n\u3057\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f<\/td>\n\u3057\u307e\u3057\u305f<\/td>\n\u3057\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u304f\u308b<\/td>\n\u3053\u306a\u3044\u304b\u3063\u305f<\/td>\n\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f<\/td>\n\u304d\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

<\/p>\n

Particles<\/h3>\n

\u304c \/ \u306f <\/strong>
\n\u306f is the topic particle<\/em>, and is used to introduce a general topic or to refer to a topic already in discussion; \u304c is the subject particle<\/em>, and is used to shift emphasis to the subject it follows. The difference is very confusing and takes time and exposure to master. <\/p>\n

Note<\/em>: only \u304c can be used to answer a direct question that uses it
 e.g., \u3060\u308c\u304c\u30a2\u30e1\u30ea\u30ab\u4eba\u3067\u3059\u304b. \u79c1\u304c\u30a2\u30e1\u30ea\u30ab\u4eba\u3067\u3059. <\/p>\n

\u3092<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \n
  1. follows a direct object (something or someone directly affected by the action of a verb).
    \n\te.g., \u79c1\u306f\u671d\u3054\u306f\u3093\u3092\u305f\u3079\u307e\u3059 – I will eat breakfast. <\/li>\n
  2. indicates a place or object from which something or someone leaves. In this usage, it carries the sense of from or out of.
    \n\te.g., \u5348\u524d8\u4f8d\u306b\u5bb6\u3092\u51fa\u307e\u3059– I leave home at 8 a. m. <\/li>\n
  3. indicates a place that something moves over, along or through
    \n\te.g., \u306f\u3057\u3092\u308f\u305f\u308a\u307e\u3057\u305f – I crossed the bridge; \u307f\u3061\u3092\u3042\u308b\u3044\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 – walk down the street<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    \u306b<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \n
    1. oint in time (at, on, in) – (e.g., 1975\u5e74\u306b\u751f\u307e\u308c\u307e\u3057\u305f – I was born in 1975)
      \n\tNote<\/em>: only time words with a specific name or number (6:00, Tuesday, etc. ) take \u306b. Words indicating relative time (today, next year, etc. ) and those indicating duration (thirty minutes, five days, etc. ) do not take \u306b. <\/li>\n
    2. Location or existence (e.g., \u305d\u3053\u306b\u9280\u884c\u304c\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059; \u5c71\u7530\u3055\u3093\u306f\u3069\u3053\u306b\u3044\u307e\u3059\u304b)<\/li>\n
    3. urpose (for, in order to) when the verb is \u884c\u304f or \u6765\u308b – (e.g., \u6628\u65e5\u30c7\u30d1-\u30c8\u3078\u8cb7\u3044\u3082\u306e\u306b\u884c\u307e\u3057\u305f)<\/li>\n
    4. Direction of an action (e.g., \u96fb\u8eca\u306b\u306e\u308a\u307e\u3059; \u304a\u98a8\u5442 (\u3075\u308d)\u306b\u5165\u308a\u307e\u3059)<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      \u3078<\/strong>
      \nmarks the direction toward which an action movies. While \u306b marks movement toward a specific place, \u3078 indicates motion in a general direction. However, the difference is unimportant in many cases, and the two particles are often interchangeable. (e.g., \u660e\u65e5\u6771\u4eac\u3078\u884c\u304d\u307e\u3059)<\/p>\n

      \u3067<\/strong><\/p>\n

        \n
      1. marks the location where an action takes place
        \n\te.g., \u56f3\u66f8\u9928\u3067\u52c9\u5f37\u3057\u307e\u3059 – I will study at the library<\/li>\n
      2. marks the instrument used to carry out an action
        \n\te.g., \u30ca\u30a4\u30d5\u3067\u308a\u3093\u3054\u3092\u5207\u308a\u307e\u3057\u305f – I cut the apple with a knife<\/li>\n
      3. marks the reason or cause of an action
        \n\te.g., \u4eca, \u30d3\u30b8\u30cd\u30b9\u3067\u30ed\u30b5\u30f3\u30bc\u30eb\u30b9\u306b\u3044\u307e\u3059 – I am in Los Angeles now for business<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        \u304b\u3089<\/strong>
        \nexpresses starting point in space or time (from<\/em>)
        \n  e.g., \u6771\u4eac\u304b\u3089\u4eac\u90fd\u307e\u3067\u65b0\u5e79\u7dda\u3067\u3044\u304d\u307e\u3059 – I will go from Tokyo to Kyoto via the Shinkansen<\/p>\n

        \u3082<\/strong>
        \nmeans too\/both\/as well as<\/em> or as much (many) as<\/em>; when placed after a regular noun or pronoun, it usually means too. When this particle is used in the subject or direct object position, it replaces \u306f, \u304c, or \u3092. But it follows other particles, resulting in such combinations as \u306b\u3082, \u304b\u3089\u3082, \u307e\u3067\u3082, \u3067\u3082, and \u3078\u3082.
        \n  e.g., \u30a2\u30e1\u30ea\u30ab\u304b\u3089\u3082\u5b66\u751f\u304c\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f – students came from the U. . too
        \n  e.g., \u5148\u9031\u306e\u30d1-\u30c6-\u306b\u306f300\u4eba\u3082\u6765\u307e\u3057\u305f – As many as 300 people came to last week’s party<\/p>\n

        \u3068<\/strong>
        \nmeans together with; is used with nouns or pronouns, not adjectives, adverbs, verbs or sentences.
        \n  e.g., \u30d6\u30e9\u30a6\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u3068\u6620\u753b\u3078\u3044\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f – I went to the movies with Mrs. Brown<\/p>\n

        Word Order Free nature of Japanese language<\/h3>\n

        Japanese is sometimes called a “word order free” language because its word order is not so strictly fixed as in English. asically, even if you move a word or a phrase around as long as it is followed by a particle you can tell its grammatical function. Nevertheless, a natural word order does exist in Japanese:
        \n  N \u306f\/\u304c (time) (place) (indirect object) (direct object) V. <\/p>\n

        Making Suggesions ~\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046<\/h3>\n

        The polite, volitional form of a verb (\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046) is used to suggest, propose or invite, offer to do something for someone, or express one’s own volition; make this form by replacing \u307e\u3059 with \u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046.
        \nNote<\/em>: because this form expresses the speaker’s volition, without consideration to the hearer’s preferences, it tends to sound somewhat pushy and forceful. It is more polite to use the nonpast, polite, negative form of a verb + \u304b when inviting someone to do something together or when making a suggestion. Also, when the first person subject is expressed explicitly (\u79c1\u306f) in a volitional context (e.g., I will call Mr. Tanaka), it implies that “I but not anyone else” will do something. <\/p>\n

        \u3068 vs. \u3084 <\/h3>\n

        \u3068 (and) is used to enumerate all<\/em> objects that exist in a certain place or all<\/em> objects that belong to a certain category, while \u3084 (and things like that<\/em>) is used to list only representative objects. Thus, \u3068 is exhaustive and \u3084 is not. \n<\/div>\n

        \n

        \u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Chapter 4: \u6587\u6cd5 (\u3076\u3093\u307d\u3046)<\/h2>\n

        Conjugating Adjectives<\/h3>\n

        \ni-adjectives <\/strong>(dictionary form = root + \u3044)<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
        Past\/Nonpast<\/td>\nAff. \/Neg. <\/td>\nPlain<\/td>\nPolite<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        nonpast<\/td>\naffirmative<\/td>\nroot + \u3044 (e.g., \u3055\u3080\u3044)<\/td>\nplain + \u3067\u3059 (\u3055\u3080\u3044\u3067\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        nonpast<\/td>\nnegative<\/td>\nroot + \u304f+ \u306a\u3044
        \n\t\t\t(\u3055\u3080\u304f\u306a\u3044)<\/td>\n        		plain + \u3067\u3059
        – OR –
        \u304f + \u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093 (\u3055\u3080\u304f\u306a\u3044\u3067\u3059 | \u3055\u3080\u304f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        past<\/td>\naffirmative<\/td>\nroot + \u304b\u3063\u305f
        \n\t\t\t(\u3055\u3080\u304b\u3063\u305f)<\/td>\n        		plain past + \u3067\u3059 (\u3055\u3080\u304b\u3063\u305f\u3067\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        past<\/td>\nnegative<\/td>\nroot + \u304f + \u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f
        \n\t\t\t(\u3055\u3080\u304f\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f\u3067\u3059)<\/td>\n        		plain past (neg. ) + \u3067\u3059
        – OR –
        root + \u304f+\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

        \nNote<\/em>: \u306a\u3044\u3067\u3059 expresses a stronger level of negation than \u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/p>\n

        na-adjectives <\/strong>(dictionary form = root = adjective without the na)<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
        Past\/Nonpast<\/td>\nAff. \/Neg. <\/td>\nPlain<\/td>\nPolite<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        nonpast<\/td>\naffirmative<\/td>\nroot + \u3060
        (e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3060)<\/td>\n        		root + \u3067\u3059
        (e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3067\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        nonpast<\/td>\nnegative<\/td>\nroot + \u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044
        (e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044)
        – OR –
        root + \u3058\u3083\u306a\u3044
        (e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3058\u3083\u306a\u3044)<\/td>\n        		root + \u3067\u306f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093
        (e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3067\u306f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093)
        – OR –
        root + \u3058\u3083\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093
        (e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3058\u3083\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        past<\/td>\naffirmative<\/td>\nroot + \u3060\u3063\u305f
        (e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3060\u3063\u305f)<\/td>\n        		root + \u3067\u3057\u305f
        (e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3067\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        past<\/td>\nnegative<\/td>\nroot + \u3067\u306f\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f
        (e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3067\u306f\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f)
        – OR –
        root + \u3058\u3083\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f
        (e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3058\u3083\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f)<\/td>\n        		root + \u3067\u306f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f
        (e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3067\u306f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f)
        – OR –
        root + \u3058\u3083\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f
        (e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3058\u3083\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

        <\/p>\n

        Comparatives and Superlatives<\/h3>\n

        X \u306f Y \u3088\u308a + adjective or (adverb + verb)
        \n  – X is more. . . adjective. . . than Y<\/em> | X does\/verb more. . . adverb. . . than Y<\/em>
        \n  e.g., \u4eca\u5e74\u306e\u51ac\u306f\u53bb\u5e74\u306e\u51ac\u3088\u308a\u96e8\u304c\u305f\u304f\u3055\u3093\u3075\u308a\u307e\u3057\u305f – It rained more this winter than last winter<\/p>\n

        X \u3068 Y \u3068 \u3069\u3061\u3089 (\u306e\u307b\u3046) \u304c + adj. or (adverb + verb)
        \n  – Which is more. . . adjective. . . X orY?<\/em> | Which does\/verb more. . . adverb. . . X orY?<\/em>
        \n  e.g., \u5c71\u7530\u5148\u751f\u3068\u9ad8\u7530\u5148\u751f\u3068\u3069\u3061\u3089\u306e\u307b\u3046\u304c\u304d\u3073\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059\u304b – Who is stricter – Prof. Yamada or Prof. Takada?<\/p>\n

        X (\u306e\u307b\u3046) \u304c + adjective or (adverb + verb)
        \n  – X is more. . . adjective<\/em> | X does\/verb. . . adverb. . . more<\/em>
        \n  e.g., \u5c71\u7530\u5148\u751f\u306e\u307b\u3046\u304c\u304d\u3073\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059 – Professor Yamada is stricter<\/p>\n

        X \u3068 Y \u3068 Z \u306e(\u4e2d\/\u3046\u3061)\u3067 X \u304c \u4e00\u64ad + adjective
        \n  – X is the most. . . adj. . . . among X, Y, and Z<\/em><\/p>\n

        X \u3068 Y \u3068 Z \u306e(\u4e2d\/\u3046\u3061)\u3067 X \u304c \u4e00\u64ad + (adverb + verb)
        \n  – X does\/verb the most. . . adverb. . . among X, Y and Z<\/em>
        \n  e.g., \u30d3-\u30eb\u3068\u30b8\u30e5-\u30b9\u3068\u30b3-\u30e9\u306e\u4e2d\u3067\u30b3-\u30e9\u3092\u4e00\u756a\u3088\u304f\u98f2\u307f\u307e\u3059 – Among beer, juice & cola, I drink cola most often<\/p>\n

        X \u306f Y \u3068\u540c(\u304a\u306a)\u3058\u3050\u3089\u3044 + adjective or (adverb + verb)
        \n  – X is about the same as Y with regard to. . . <\/em>
        \n  e.g., \u753a\u7530\u3055\u3093\u306f\u6797\u3055\u3093\u3068\u540c\u3058\u3050\u3089\u3044\u3088\u304f\u3053\u3053\u306b\u6765\u307e\u3059 – Ms. Machida comes here about as often as Mr. Hayashi)<\/p>\n

        X \u306f Y \u307b\u3069+ negative adjective or (adverb + negative verb)
        \n  – X is\/does not. . . adjective\/adverb. . . as Y<\/em>
        \n  e.g., \u3042\u306e\u4eba\u306f\u30c1\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u307b\u3069\u306f\u3084\u304f\u8a71\u3057\u307e\u305b\u3093 – That person doesn’t talk as fast as Ms. Chin<\/p>\n

        Past, plain form of verbs<\/h3>\n\n\n\n\n\n
        Class 1<\/strong><\/td>\ndepends on the ending of the dictionary form:
        \n\t\t\t\u304f ⇒ \u3044\u305f (\u304b\u304f(to write) ⇒ \u304b\u3044\u305f)
        \n\t\t\t\u3050 ⇒ \u3044\u3060 (\u304a\u3088\u3050(to swim) ⇒ \u304a\u3088\u3044\u3060)
        \n\t\t\t\u3046 \/ \u3064 \/ \u308b ⇒ \u3063\u305f (\u304b\u3046 ⇒ \u304b\u3063\u305f; \u307e\u3064 ⇒ \u307e\u3063\u305f; \u306e\u308b ⇒ \u306e\u3063\u305f)
        \n\t\t\t\u3080 \/ \u306c \/ \u3076 ⇒ \u3093\u3060 (\u3088\u3080 ⇒ \u3088\u3093\u3060; \u3057\u306c ⇒ \u3057\u3093\u3060; \u3088\u3076 ⇒ \u3088\u3093\u3060)
        \n\t\t\t\u3059 ⇒ \u3057\u305f (\u8a71\u3059 ⇒ \u8a71\u3057\u305f)
         
        Note<\/em>: one major exception is \u884c\u304f ⇒ \u3044\u3063\u305f<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        Class 2<\/strong><\/td>\nroot + \u305f – (e.g., \u98df\u3079\u305f)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        Class 3<\/strong><\/td>\n\u3059\u308b ⇒ \u3057\u305f; \u304f\u308b ⇒ \u304d\u305f<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

        <\/p>\n

        Explaining a Reason. . . \u306e\u3060<\/h3>\n

        Sentences ending in \u306e\u3060 (polite form \u306e\u3067\u3059) explain the reason for some event or information known to both speaker and hearer. In colloquial speech \u3093\u3060 (polite form \u3093\u3067\u3059) commonly replaces \u306e\u3060 (\u306e\u3067\u3059).
        \n  \u3055\u3080\u3044\u3067\u3059\u304b
        \n  \u3055\u3080\u3044\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304b <\/p>\n

        In the first sentence, the speaker has no idea whether or not the listener feels cold. Therefore it is simply a straightforward question. In the second, the speaker assumes the listener is cold (for example, he is shivering). The second sentence, then, asks for an explanation. imilarly, if you see a friend getting ready to do something, it would be more natural to ask \u4f55\u3092\u3059\u308b\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304b than \u306a\u306b\u3092\u3057\u307e\u3059\u304b because his\/her preparations are shared between you. <\/p>\n

        Verbs, adjectives and nouns may precede this construction. In the case of verbs and i-adjectives, the plain form is used. In the case of nouns or nonpast, affirmative na-adjectives, \u306a precedes \u306e\u3067\u3059(\u3093\u3067\u3059)
        \n  e.g., \u306a\u305c\u304b\u304a\u304c\u3042\u304b\u3044\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304b – Why is your face red?
        \n  e.g., \u6797\u3055\u3093\u306f\u5b66\u751f\u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304b – Isn’t Mr. Hayashi a student?
        \n  e.g., \u5c71\u7530\u3055\u3093\u306f\u3069\u3046\u3057\u3066\u3086\u3046\u3081\u3044\u306a\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304b – Why is Mr. Yamada famous?<\/p>\n

        \u3066-Form of adjectives<\/h3>\n

        The te-form of adjectives is used to link together adjectives or whole clauses in a sentence, as and is used in English. This form can only be used when adjectives are in a nonfinal postion in a sentence.
        \n  i-adjectives<\/em>: create the te-form by adding to \u304f\u3066 to the root – e.g., \u3042\u304b\u304f\u3066 – red.
        \n  na-adjectives<\/em>: create the te-form by \u3067 to the root (dictionary form) – e.g., \u3057\u305a\u304b\u3067<\/p>\n

        Note<\/em>: When you conjoin two or more adjectives this way, they must be all favorable or unfavorable in meaning. <\/p>\n

        To conjoin nouns, use the te-form of the copula (\u3067\u3059) which is \u3067.
        \n  e.g., \u753a\u7530\u3055\u3093\u306f\u65e5\u672c\u4eba\u3067, \u6771\u4eac\u306e\u3057\u3085\u3063\u3057\u3093\u3067\u3059 – Mr. Machida is Japanese and is from Tokyo
        \nThe te-form of the copula can also be used to explain a reason or cause for what follows
        \n  e.g., \u3073\u3087\u3046\u304d\u3067, \u30af\u30e9\u30b9\u3092\u4f11\u307f\u307e\u3057\u305f – I was sick so I missed class<\/p>\n

        \u3066-Form of verbs<\/h3>\n

        The te-form of verbs is easy – just change the \u305f in the plain, past tense to \u3066.
        \nYou can use this form for many purposes. One of them is to conjoin sequential actions. Do this by using the te-form + \u304b\u3089.
        \n  e.g., \u30d6\u30e9\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u306b\u4f1a\u3063\u3066\u304b\u3089, \u8a71\u3057\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046 – Let’s talk about it after we meet Ms. Brown
        \nLike the te-form of the copula, the te-form of a verb can be used to express a cause and effect relationship where the first clause explains a reason for the second. You will have to determine from context whether such a causal connection is intended.
        \n  e.g., \u306d\u307c\u3046\u3057\u3066, \u5b66\u6821\u306b\u304a\u304f\u308c\u305f – I overslept and so I was late for school<\/p>\n

        Expressing Probability and Conjecture – \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/h3>\n

        There are many ways to express conjecture or uncertainty in Japanese. Two of the most common are \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 (plain form \u3060\u308d\u3046) and \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093 (plain form \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u306a\u3042\u3044). The major difference is that \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093 expresses a greater degree of uncertainty.
        \n  \u30b8\u30e7\u30f3\u30bd\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u304c\u308f\u304b\u308b\u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 – Mr. Johnson probably understands Japanese
        \n  \u30b8\u30e7\u30f3\u30bd\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u304c\u308f\u304b\u308b\u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093 – Mr. Johnson may understand Japanese
        \nNote<\/em>: if making a conjecture about yourself, always use \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093. <\/p>\n

        To form the construction:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
        Preceding Word<\/td>\nPast\/Nonpast<\/td>\nAff. \/Neg. <\/td>\nConstruction<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        Noun<\/td>\nnonpast<\/td>\naffirmative<\/td>\nNoun +  \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 (\u3060\u308d\u3046) \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093 (\u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u306a\u3044)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        Noun<\/td>\nnonpast<\/td>\nnegative<\/td>\nNoun + \u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044 + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        Noun<\/td>\npast<\/td>\naffirmative<\/td>\nNoun + \u3060\u3063\u305f + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        Noun<\/td>\npast<\/td>\nnegative<\/td>\nNoun + \u3067\u306f\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        i-adjective<\/td>\nnonpast<\/td>\naffirmative<\/td>\ndictionary form + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        i-adjective<\/td>\nnonpast<\/td>\nnegative<\/td>\nnonpast, plain form + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        i-adjective<\/td>\npast<\/td>\naffirmative<\/td>\npast, plain + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        i-adjective<\/td>\npast<\/td>\nnegative<\/td>\npast, plan, negative + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        na-adjective<\/td>\nnonpast<\/td>\naffirmative<\/td>\ndictionary form + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        na-adjective<\/td>\nnonpast<\/td>\nnegative<\/td>\ndictionary form + \u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044 + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        na-adjective<\/td>\npast<\/td>\naffirmative<\/td>\npast, plain + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        na-adjective<\/td>\npast<\/td>\nnegative<\/td>\npast, plain, negative + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        verb<\/td>\nnonpast<\/td>\naffirmative<\/td>\ndictionary form + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        verb<\/td>\nnonpast<\/td>\nnegative<\/td>\nnonpast, plain, negative form + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        verb<\/td>\npast<\/td>\naffirmative<\/td>\npast, plain + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        verb<\/td>\npast<\/td>\nnegative<\/td>\npast, plain, negative + \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 \/ \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

        \n\u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046\/\u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093 phrases are often accompanied by adverbs expressing degrees of certainty. ome examples include:
        \n  \u591a\u5206 (\u305f\u3076\u3093) – probably
        \n  \u304a\u305d\u3089\u304f – possibly, in all likelihood
        \n  \u304d\u3063\u3068 – certainly, surely <\/p>\n

        Because of the strong probability expressed by \u304d\u3063\u3068, it cannot be used with \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093.
        \n  e.g., \u304b\u308c\u306f\u304a\u305d\u3089\u304f\u672c\u7530\u3055\u3093\u306b\u96fb\u8a71\u3092\u304b\u3051\u308b\u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 – Most likely, he will call Mr. Honda\n<\/div>\n

        \n

        \u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Chapter 5: \u6587\u6cd5 (\u3076\u3093\u307d\u3046)<\/h2>\n

        By appending the particles \u304b, \u3082 or \u3067\u3082 to an interrogative (question word), you can express a whole range of meanings:<\/p>\n

          \n
        1. An interrogative followed by \u304b yields a word meaning some<\/em>. . . <\/li>\n
        2. An interrogative followed by \u3082 means every<\/em>. . . in affirmative sentences; it means no<\/em>. . . in negative sentences<\/li>\n
        3. An interrogative followed by \u3067\u3082 means any, what\/who\/which. . . ever<\/em>. <\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Interrogative<\/td>\n+\u304b<\/td>\n+\u3082 (Affirmative sentences)<\/td>\n+\u3082 (Neg. sentences)<\/td>\n+\u3067\u3082<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u4f55<\/td>\n\u4f55\u304b
          \n\t\t\tsomething<\/td>\n          		\u307f\u3093\u306a, \u307f\u306a, \u5168\u3066 (\u3059\u3079\u3066), \u5168\u90e8(\u305c\u3093\u3076)
          \n\t\t\teverything<\/td>\n          		\u4f55\u3082
          \n\t\t\tnothing<\/td>\n          		\u4f55\u3067\u3082
          \n\t\t\tanything (and everything), whatever<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u3060\u308c \/ \u3069\u306a\u305f<\/td>\n\u3060\u308c\u304b\/\u3069\u306a\u305f\u304b
          \n\t\t\tsomeone<\/td>\n          		\u307f\u3093\u306a, \u307f\u306a, \u307f\u306a\u3055\u3093
          \n\t\t\teveryone<\/td>\n          		\u3060\u308c\u3082 \/ \u3069\u306a\u305f\u3082
          \n\t\t\tno one<\/td>\n          		\u3060\u308c\u3067\u3082 \/ \u3069\u306a\u305f\u3067\u3082
          \n\t\t\tanyone, whoever<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u3044\u3064<\/td>\n\u3044\u3064\u304b
          \n\t\t\tsometime<\/td>\n          		\u3044\u3064\u3082
          \n\t\t\teverytime<\/td>\n          		\u3044\u3064\u3082
          \n\t\t\tnever<\/td>\n          		\u3044\u3064\u3067\u3082
          \n\t\t\tanytime, whenever<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u3069\u3053<\/td>\n\u3069\u3053\u304b
          \n\t\t\tsomewhere<\/td>\n          		\u3069\u3053\u3082
          \n\t\t\teverywhere<\/td>\n          		\u3069\u3053\u3082
          \n\t\t\tnowhere<\/td>\n          		\u3069\u3053\u3067\u3082
          \n\t\t\tanywhere, wherever<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u3069\u308c<\/td>\n\u3069\u308c\u304b
          \n\t\t\tone of them<\/td>\n          		\u3069\u308c\u3082
          \n\t\t\tevery one, everything<\/td>\n          		\u3069\u308c\u3082
          \n\t\t\tnone of them<\/td>\n          		\u3069\u308c\u3067\u3082
          \n\t\t\tany of them, whichever one<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u3069\u3061\u3089<\/td>\n\u3069\u3061\u3089\u304b
          \n\t\t\teither of two<\/td>\n          		\u3069\u3061\u3089\u3082
          \n\t\t\tboth of them<\/td>\n          		\u3069\u3061\u3089\u3082
          \n\t\t\tneither of them<\/td>\n          		\u3069\u3061\u3089\u3067\u3082
          \n\t\t\teither of them, whichever of the two<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \nWhen the particles \u306b, \u3078, \u304b\u3089 and \u307e\u3067 are part of a sentence containing the interrogative + \u304b\/\u3082\/\u3067\u3082 construction, they fall between the interrogative and \u3082 or \u3067\u3082.
          \n  e.g., \u3069\u3053\u304b\u3078\u884c\u307e\u3057\u305f\u304b. – \u3044\u3044\u3048, \u3069\u3053\u3078\u3082\u884c\u304d\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f.
          \n  – Did you go somewhere? No, I didn’t go anywhere. <\/p>\n

          The \u3092 particle is dropped whenever this construction is used.
          \n  e.g., \u4f55\u3092\u898b\u307e\u3059\u304b. – \u4f55\u3067\u3082\u898b\u307e\u3059.
          \n  – What will you see? I’m going to see everything. <\/p>\n

          When expessing skills, ability\/potential, likes\/dislikes, understanding, use the particle \u304c instead of \u3092.
          \n  e.g., \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u304c\u4e0a\u624b\u3067\u3059 – I am good at Japanese<\/p>\n

          Generally, only nouns, pronouns, noun phrases and noun-like elements can be used in the subject and object positions of a sentence. When you would like to use verbs and adjectives in those positions, you must change them into noun phrases. To do so, use \u3053\u3068 and\/or \u306e (these are called nominalizers). Add one to the plain form of a verb or adjective to form a noun phrase. <\/p>\n

          Formation<\/em>: Plain form of verb, i-adjective, or na-adjective (i. e. include the na) + \u3053\u3068 or \u306e
          \n  e.g., \u305d\u306e\u753a\u304c\u304d\u308c\u3044\u306a\u306e\u306f\u6709\u540d (\u3086\u3046\u3081\u3044) \u3067\u3059 – It’s well known that that town is pretty. <\/p>\n

          The difference between \u3053\u3068 and \u306e is that \u306e is used in sentences that express something subjective and \u3053\u3068 is used when talking about something more generally or objectively.
          \n  e.g., \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u3092\u8a71\u3059\u306e\u306f\u3084\u3055\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059 – Speaking Japanese is easy
          \n  e.g., \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u3092\u8a71\u3059\u3053\u3068\u306f\u3084\u3055\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059 – Speaking Japanese is easy <\/p>\n

          The first sentence implies that the speaker is basing the observation on personal experience whereas the second simply makes a generally known observation that Japanese is easy to write (compared, say, to writing it). For this reason, \u3053\u3068 sometimes sounds a bit formal or bookish. In many contexts, you can use either \u3053\u3068 or \u306e with little difference in meaning other than that just mentioned. In some contexts, however, only \u3053\u3068 or \u306e can be used. <\/p>\n

          In the following sentence, \u306e must be used, because the statement involves the speaker’s direct perception.
          \n  e.g., \u79c1\u306f\u7236\u304c\u304a\u9152\u3092\u98f2\u3080\u306e\u3092\u898b\u3066\u3044\u305f – I was watching my father drink sake. <\/p>\n

          Whereas this next sentence expresses a general fact, so only \u3053\u3068 can be used.
          \n  e.g., \u898b\u308b\u3053\u3068\u306f\u4fe1 (\u3057\u3093)\u3058\u308b\u3053\u3068\u3067\u3059 – Seeing is believing. <\/p>\n

          A \u3082 B \u3082 means both A and B<\/em> or A as well as B<\/em> in affirmative sentence and (n)either A (n)or B<\/em> in negative sentences.
          \n  e.g., \u3053\u3053\u306f\u6625\u3082\u590f\u3082\u79cb\u3082\u96e8\u304c\u305f\u304f\u3055\u3093\u3075\u308b – It rains a lot here in spring, summer, and fall as well. <\/p>\n

          Numeral + counter + \u3082 means as much as<\/em> or as many as<\/em> the stated quantity; in other words, the number is higher than the speaker expected or more than usual. When this form is used in negative sentences, the implication is the opposite: the number is smaller than expected, not even the stated quantity<\/em>.
          \n  e.g., \u5148\u9031\u306e\u30d1-\u30c6\u30a3-\u306b\u306f300\u4eba\u3082\u6765\u305f – As many as 300 people came to last week’s party<\/p>\n

          In Japanese, there are two ways to express ability or potential. Both correspond to the English auxilliary verb can<\/em>. <\/p>\n

            \n
          1. Dictionary form of very + \u3053\u3068\u304c\u3067\u304d\u308b<\/li>\n
          2. Conjugated form of the verb.
            \n\tFor Class 1 verbs, take the root + the e-column hiragana corresponding to the dictionary ending + \u308b
            \n\tFor Class 2 verbs, take the root + \u3089\u308c\u308b
            \n\tClass 3 – \u304f\u308b ⇒ \u6765\u3089\u308c\u308b \/ \u3059\u308b ⇒ \u3067\u304d\u308b
            \n\tOnce formed, conjugate just like a Class 2 verb<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            In sentences using the potential form of verbs, the direct object can be marked with either \u304c or \u3092. Thus
            \n\u79c1\u306f\u6f22\u5b57\u304c\u4e0a\u624b\u306b\u66f8\u3051\u307e\u3059
            \n\u79c1\u306f\u6f22\u5b57\u3092\u4e0a\u624b\u306b\u66f8\u3051\u307e\u3059
            \nare both grammatically correct. In general, Japanese speakers tend to prefer \u304c in most contexts. <\/p>\n

            The particle \u304b, used between two nouns, means or<\/em>.
            \n  e.g., \u30b8\u30e5-\u30b9\u304b\u30b3-\u30e9-\u3092\u98f2\u307f\u307e\u305b\u3093\u304b – would you like some juice or cola?<\/p>\n

            \u3066-form + auxiliary verb \u3044\u307e\u3059(\u3044\u308b) can be used to express these two meanings:<\/p>\n

              \n
            1. A continuing action at a certain point in time<\/li>\n
            2. A state or condition that was created by a previous action or event and that is still maintained at a certain point in time. <\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              Uses<\/h3>\n
                \n
              • If the verb indicates an action that can continue once started, such as \u98df\u3079\u308b, it has the first meaning. <\/li>\n
              • When the verb indicates an action that is noncontinuous, such as \u77e5\u308b (to come to know) or \u6674\u308c\u308b (to clear up), it has the second meaning. <\/li>\n
              • When movement verbs such as \u884c\u304f, \u6765\u308b, \u5e30\u308b, \u5165\u308b, and \u51fa\u308b are used in this construction, the second meaning is expressed. <\/li>\n
              • Sometimes either meaning is possible. Examples include: \u7740\u308b(\u304d\u308b), \u53d6\u308b(\u3068\u308b), \u304a\u307c\u3048\u308b
                \n\te.g., \u305d\u306e\u5927\u5b66\u751f\u306f\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u306e\u305f\u3093\u3054\u3092\u304a\u307c\u3048\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059
                \n\t– Those students are memorizing Japanese words (now)
                \n\t– Those students know (have memorized \/ remember) Japanese words<\/li>\n
              • Sometimes this construction is used to express a habitual action, one that takes place repeatedly
                \n\te.g., \u79c1\u306f\u6bce\u65e5\u30b8\u30e7\u30ad\u30f3\u30b0\u3092\u3057\u307e\u3059 (simply states fact that I jog every day)
                \n\te.g., \u79c1\u306f\u6bce\u65e5\u30b8\u30e7\u30ad\u30f3\u30b0\u3092\u3057\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059 (emphasizes that jogging is part of my daily activities)
                \n\tThe difference between these sentences and regular, nonpast sentences is that these emphasize the habitual nature of the action(s). <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                When you are asked whether you have finished doing something and you have not done so, you will answer using the \u3066-\u3044\u308b form. If you have already done so, answer using the regular past tense form.
                \n  e.g., \u663c\u3054\u306f\u3093\u3092\u3082\u3046\u98df\u3079\u307e\u3057\u305f\u304b. -\u3044\u3044\u3048, \u307e\u3060\u98df\u3079\u3066\u3044\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/p>\n

                When a whole clause modifies a noun, the clause usually takes the form of a relative clause. In English, the relative clause follows the noun it modifies (e.g., the person who came here yesterday). Japanese relative clauses, like their English counterparts, modify nouns. However, there are some differences:<\/p>\n

                  \n
                1. Relative clauses in Japanese precede<\/em> nouns that they modify. <\/li>\n
                2. There are no relative pronouns or adverbs required in Japanese. Relative clauses directly<\/em> precede the nouns they modify. <\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                  e.g., \u79c1\u304c\u6628\u65e5\u98df\u3079\u305f\u30d4\u30b6\u306f\u304a\u3044\u3057\u304b\u3063\u305f\u3067\u3059 – The pizza I ate yesterday was delicious. <\/p>\n

                  Note<\/em>: <\/p>\n

                    \n
                  • Always use plain form of verbs in clauses<\/li>\n
                  • The possesive marker \u306e is often substituted for the subject particle \u304c in relative clauses and other noun-modifying clauses<\/li>\n
                  • The topic particle \u306f is not used within relative clauses<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                    To describe a change in state, use the verb \u306a\u308a\u307e\u3059 (\u306a\u308b)<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
                    noun<\/td>\n\u306b<\/td>\n\u306a\u308a\u307e\u3059 (\u306a\u308b)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    na-adjective root<\/td>\n\u306b<\/td>\n\u306a\u308a\u307e\u3059 (\u306a\u308b)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    i-adjective root<\/td>\n\u304f<\/td>\n\u306a\u308a\u307e\u3059 (\u306a\u308b)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

                    \n\u306e\u3067 – because<\/em>. . . <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
                    noun ⇒<\/td>\nnoun<\/td>\n\u306a\u306e\u3067<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    na-adjective ⇒<\/td>\nroot<\/td>\n\u306a\u306e\u3067<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    i-adjective ⇒<\/td>\ni-adjective<\/td>\n\u306e\u3067<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    Verb ⇒<\/td>\ninformal form of verb<\/td>\n\u306e\u3067<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n
                    \n

                    \u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Chapter 6: \u6587\u6cd5 (\u3076\u3093\u307d\u3046)<\/h2>\n

                    \u305f-form + \u3053\u3068\u304c\u3042\u308b (\u3053\u3068\u304c\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059) <\/h3>\n

                    This form is used to express past experiences, with a meaning of to have (done something) before, to have (done something) once<\/em> or literally, to have the experience of having (done something). <\/em> <\/p>\n

                    Notice the difference between this construction and the simple past:
                    \n  e.g., \u4e09\u5e74\u524d\u30c0\u30a4\u30a8\u30c3\u30c8\u3057\u307e\u3057\u305f
                    \n  e.g., \u4e09\u5e74\u524d\u30c0\u30a4\u30a8\u30c3\u30c8\u3057\u305f\u3053\u3068\u304c\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059 <\/p>\n

                    The first sentence describes the speaker’s diet simply as a past event – I was on a diet 3 years ago.
                    \nThe second sentence describes the diet as an experience the speaker had at some time in his life (3 years ago). <\/p>\n

                    Express a lack of experience by using the negative forms of \u3042\u308b
                    \nNote: you cannot use this construction with words indicating the recent past <\/em><\/p>\n

                    Some speakers may use the sentence-final particle \u306a (\u3042) to express the speaker’s emotion directly, to try to convince others, to confirm another’s opinion, to express a wish, and so forth. <\/p>\n

                    ~\u307b\u3057\u3044 \/ ~\u307b\u3057\u304c\u308b<\/h3>\n

                    In Japanese, there is no single verb meaning to want (as in I want a new car). Instead you must choose betwewen two constructions, depending on who is doing the wanting.
                    \n  (a) X \u306f + Y \u304c + \u307b\u3057\u3044 – X wants Y
                    \n  (b) X \u306f + Y \u3092 + \u307b\u3057\u304c\u308b – X wants Y<\/p>\n

                    Construction (a) is used when expressing one’s own desire or when directly asking another person about his or her desire. \u307b\u3057\u3044 is an i-adjective and conjugates as such (e.g., \u4eca, \u30b3-\u30d2-\u306f\u307b\u3057\u304f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093 – I don’t want any coffee now). <\/p>\n

                    Construction (b) is used when discussing a third person’s desire. \u307b\u3057\u304c\u308b is a class 1 verb. The te-form of \u307b\u3057\u304c\u308b + \u3044\u308b (\u307b\u3057\u304c\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b) is used when expressing a current desire, whereas the nonpast form (\u307b\u3057\u304c\u308b) expresses a longer term desire.
                    \n  e.g., \u6797\u3055\u3093\u306f\u3082\u3063\u3068\u672c\u3092\u307b\u3057\u304c\u3063\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059 – Mr. Hayashi wants more books
                    \n  e.g., \u59b9\u306f\u3042\u307e\u308a\u304a\u91d1\u3092\u307b\u3057\u304c\u3089\u306a\u3044 – My younger sister doesn’t want money very much<\/p>\n

                    Note<\/em>: the object of desire is marked with \u304c in sentences using the predicate \u307b\u3057\u3044 and with \u3092 in those using \u307b\u3057\u304c\u308b (e.g., \u79c1\u306f\u65b0\u3057\u3044\u8eca\u304c\u307b\u3057\u3044). <\/p>\n

                    ~\u304c\u308b<\/h3>\n

                    In general, to describe someone else’s emotional state (since you can’t know it for sure) you can attach ~\u304c\u308b to the root of an adjective to mean has the appearance of<\/em> or appears to (be)<\/em>. Thus, when you are lonely, you say \u3055\u3073\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059, but when someone else is lonely you say \u3055\u3073\u3057\u304c\u3063\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059. <\/p>\n

                    ~\u305f\u3044 \/ ~\u305f\u304c\u308b<\/h3>\n

                    Similar to the \u307b\u3057\u3044 \/ \u307b\u3057\u304c\u308b pair is the pair of patterns used to express to want to (do something)
                    \n  (a) X \u306f + Y \u304c\/\u3092 + conjunctive form of verb + \u305f\u3044
                    \n  (b) X \u306f + Y \u3092 + conjunctive form of verb + \u305f\u304c\u308b
                    \nNote: the direct object of the verb is marked with <\/em>\u304c or <\/em>\u3092 in sentences using <\/em>\u305f\u3044 and only with <\/em>\u3092 in those using <\/em>\u305f\u304c\u308b. <\/em><\/p>\n

                    The ~\u305f\u3044 form is often used to ask permission. For instance:
                    \n  \u3053\u306e\u30b3\u30f3\u30d4\u30e5-\u30bf\u3092\u4f7f(\u3064\u304b)\u3044\u305f\u3044\u306e\u3067\u3059\u304c – I want to use this computer, but. . . (is it OK?)
                    \n  \u4e2d\u306b\u5165\u308a\u305f\u3044\u3067\u3059\u304c,\u3088\u308d\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059\u304b – I would like to go inside, but is that all right?<\/p>\n

                    The difference between ~\u305f\u304c\u308b and ~\u305f\u304c\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b is the same as for ~\u307b\u3057\u304c\u308b \/ ~\u307b\u3057\u304c\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b<\/p>\n

                    Note<\/em>: In Japanese, it is often considered rude to ask someone what he or she desires directly (especially when addressing superiors). Thus, instead of asking \u3059\u304d\u3084\u304d\u304c\u98df\u3079\u305f\u3044\u3067\u3059\u304b you would probably say \u3059\u304d\u3084\u304d\u306f\u3044\u304b\u304c\u3067\u3059\u304b or \u3059\u304d\u3084\u304d\u3092\u98df\u3079\u307e\u305b\u3093\u304b. <\/p>\n

                    Expressing an opinion. . . \u3068\u601d\u3046 (\u304a\u3082\u3046)<\/h3>\n

                    An opinion can be expressed with the following construction, which means to think (that). <\/em> \u601d\u3046 is a class 1 verb. <\/p>\n

                    Plain form of verb, adjective, or copula + \u3068\u601d\u3046(\u601d\u3044\u307e\u3059) <\/p>\n

                    To ask for someone’s opinion, say … (\u3092<\/strong>)\u3069\u3046\u601d\u3044\u307e\u3059\u304b (What do you think about…?) [note the particle<\/em>!]\n

                    ~\u3059\u304e\u308b<\/h3>\n

                    To add the meaning too much<\/em> or excessively<\/em> to a verb or adjective, add the verb \u3059\u304e\u308b to the appropriate form. \u3059\u304e\u308b is a class 2 verb meaning to exceed. <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
                    VERB<\/td>\nI-ADJECTIVES<\/td>\nNA-ADJECTIVES<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    Conjunctive Form + \u3059\u304e\u308b<\/td>\nRoot + \u3059\u304e\u308b<\/td>\nRoot (Dictionary Form) + \u3059\u304e\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    \u98f2\u3080 ⇒ \u98f2\u307f<\/td>\n\u3080\u305a\u304b\u3057\u3044 ⇒ \u3080\u305a\u304b\u3057<\/td>\n\u3057\u305a\u304b(\u306a) ⇒ \u3057\u305a\u304b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    \u98df\u3079\u308b ⇒ \u98df\u3079<\/td>\n\u5927\u304d\u3044 ⇒ \u5927\u304d<\/td>\n\u306f\u3067(\u306a) ⇒ \u306f\u3067<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    \u3059\u308b ⇒ \u3057<\/td>\n <\/td>\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    \u6765\u308b ⇒ \u6765(\u304d)<\/td>\n <\/td>\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

                    <\/p>\n

                    Quoting Speech<\/h3>\n

                    The verb \u8a00\u3046 (\u3044\u3046) is used in the following construction to say what something or someone is called or named.
                    \n(A \u306f) + X \u3092 + Y \u3068 + \u3044\u3046(\u3044\u3044\u307e\u3059) – A calls X Y <\/p>\n

                    Note: In this usage, the verb is not written in kanji. <\/em><\/p>\n

                    Use the same verb to make a noun phrase meaning X called (or named) Y ⇒ Y + \u3068\u3044\u3046 + X
                    \n  e.g., \u6771\u4eac\u5927\u5b66\u3068\u3044\u3046\u3060\u3044\u304c\u304f – A\/The university called Tokyo University <\/p>\n

                    Note<\/em>: In colloquial speech, \u3068\u3044\u3046 very often changes to . . . \u3063\u3066\u3044\u3046<\/p>\n

                    Quote Marker \u3068<\/h3>\n

                    The particle \u3068 is called a quote market and is used to mark the end of a quotation. In addition, it indicates the content of thinking (… \u3068\u601d\u3046), writing (… \u3068\u66f8\u304f), and hearing (… \u3068\u805e\u304f). <\/p>\n

                    There are two ways to quote someone’s words – direct quotation and indirect quotation. Direct quotations take the following structure:
                    \n\u300c\u300d, \u3068\u8a00\u3046 (or some other communication verb)
                    \nNote<\/em>: \u300c\u300d (called \u304b\u304e\u304b\u3063\u3053) are equivalent to quotation marks
                    \n  e.g.,\u300c\u65e9\u304f\u8d77\u304d\u3066\u4e0b\u3055\u3044\u300d\u3068\u5c71\u53e3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u3044\u3044\u307e\u3057\u305f. – Mr. Yamaguchi said, “Please get up early.” <\/p>\n

                    Indirect quotations take the following structure:
                    \nClause ending in a plain form of verb, adjective or copula + \u3068\u8a00\u3046 (or other verb of communication) <\/p>\n

                    No quotation marks are used, and only the plain form of a verb, adjective, or the copula can be used in front of \u3068 in this case.
                    \n  e.g., \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u306f\u660e\u65e5\u6765\u308b\u3068\u8a00\u3044\u307e\u3057\u305f – Mr. Mimura said he will come tomorrow<\/p>\n

                    Note<\/em>: When the subject of the clause preceding \u3068\u8a00\u3046 is in the third person, and the tense of \u8a00\u3046 is nonpast, it is better to use \u8a00\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b
                    \n
                    \nSome communication verbs often used in these constructions are \u8a00\u3046 (to say, to tell), \u4f1d(\u3064\u305f)\u3048\u308b (to convey), \u8ff0(\u306e)\u3079\u308b (to state), \u805e\u304f (to hear, to ask), and \u8a71\u3059 (to speak). <\/p>\n

                    Expressing Intention: \u3064\u3082\u308a and the Volitional Form of Verbs<\/h3>\n

                    Dictionary form of verb + \u3064\u3082\u308a \u3060\/\u3067\u3059 – to intend to… or to plan to…
                    \nDictionary form of verb + \u3064\u3082\u308a \u3060\u3063\u305f\/\u3067\u3057\u305f – intended to… or planned to…
                    \nDictionary form of verb + \u3064\u3082\u308a\u306f\u306a\u3044 (\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093) – to have no intention of (doing)…
                    \nnai form of verb + \u3064\u3082\u308a \u3060\/\u3067\u3059 – to intend not to (do)… <\/p>\n

                    Note<\/em>:
                    \n  you can only use \u3064\u3082\u308a when talking about your own plans (others’ plans use \u3088\u3066\u3044)
                    \n  you should use \u304a\u3064\u3082\u308a when talking to superiors<\/p>\n

                    Plain, volitional form of verb + \u3068\u601d\u3046(\u601d\u3044\u307e\u3059) – to think one will (do)… or to think of (doing)…
                    \nNote: with the volitional construction the intention is weaker and more tentative<\/p>\n

                    The plain, volitional form of verbs is formed in the following way:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
                    Class 1 Verbs<\/td>\nClass 2 Verbs<\/td>\nClass 3 Verbs<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    Root + the o-column hiragana corresponding to the
                    \n\t\t\tdictionary ending + \u3046<\/td>\n                    		Root + \u3088\u3046<\/td>\nIrregular<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                    \u8cb7\u3046 ⇒ \u8cb7\u304a\u3046
                    \n\t\t\t\u66f8\u304f ⇒ \u66f8\u3053\u3046
                    \n\t\t\t\u8a71\u3059 ⇒ \u8a71\u305d\u3046
                    \n\t\t\t\u7acb\u3064 ⇒ \u7acb\u3068\u3046
                    \n\t\t\t\u6b7b\u306c ⇒ \u6b7b\u306e\u3046
                    \n\t\t\t\u8aad\u3080 ⇒ \u8aad\u3082\u3046
                    \n\t\t\t\u4e57\u308b ⇒ \u4e57\u308d\u3046
                    \n\t\t\t\u6cf3\u3050 ⇒ \u6cf3\u3054\u3046<\/td>\n                    		\u98df\u3079\u308b ⇒ \u98df\u3079\u3088\u3046
                    \n\t\t\t\u898b\u308b ⇒ \u898b\u3088\u3046<\/td>\n                    		\u3059\u308b ⇒ \u3057\u3088\u3046
                    \n\t\t\t\u6765\u308b ⇒ \u6765\u3088\u3046<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

                    \nThe polite, volitional form of verbs is what you know as the ~\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046 form of verbs<\/p>\n

                    Note<\/em>: When you have had an intention for some time, use the volitional form of a verb + \u3068\u601d\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b rather than \u3068\u601d\u3044\u307e\u3059. <\/p>\n

                    The \u3066 form + Verbs \u307f\u308b, \u3057\u307e\u3046, \u3044\u304f, \u304f\u308b<\/h3>\n