{"id":707,"date":"2016-05-04T02:06:54","date_gmt":"2016-05-04T06:06:54","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.yookoso.com\/?page_id=707"},"modified":"2016-10-12T04:39:23","modified_gmt":"2016-10-12T08:39:23","slug":"yookoso-book-2","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.yookoso.com\/notes\/yookoso-book-2\/","title":{"rendered":"Yookoso – Book 2"},"content":{"rendered":"
\n

Yookoso! — Book 2<\/h2>\n

Yookoso is a popular two-volume textbook that is used in many U.S. universities’ Japanese language curriculum. Overall, they are solid books for learning the basic grammatical structure of Japanese but they are a bit heavy (literally not figuratively). Thus, I decided to compile the key points covered and make them available here on the Web. These notes correspond to the second volume in the series, Yookoso! Continuing With Contemporary Japanese<\/em>.<\/p>\n

Caveat<\/strong>: These notes have not been checked for accuracy by any professional Japanese language educator. Since they were transcribed from the textbooks directly they should be more or less accurate, but I make no guarantee.\n<\/div>\n

\n

\u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Book 2 – Chapter 1<\/h2>\n

Making Suggestions<\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n Ta-form of verb + \u3089<\/td>\nHow about if you (do…).
\n Why not (do …)?
\n It would be good if you (do…).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

\ne.g., \u3069\u3046\u3057\u305f\u3089\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046\u304b – What should I do?
\ne.g., \u3069\u3046\u3057\u305f\u3089\u3044\u3044\u3068\u601d\u3044\u307e\u3059\u304b – What do you think I should do?
\ne.g., \u6771\u4eac\u99c5\u306b\u884c\u304d\u305f\u3044\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304c,\u4f55\u3067\u884c\u3063\u305f\u3089\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059\u304b
\n  – I would like to go to Tokyo station. How do I get there?
\ne.g., \u6771\u4eac\u306b\u9023\u308c\u3066\u3044\u3063\u305f\u3089\u3069\u3046\u3067\u3059\u304b – How about if you take (him\/her) to Tokyo?<\/p>\n

\u3067\u3082<\/h3>\n

\n\u3067\u3082 means something<\/em> \/ somewhere<\/em> \/ someone<\/em> like that. It is frequently used when making suggestions or offering things to others.With \u3067\u3082, the speaker implies that the hearer can choose from options other than the one specified and thereby avoids giving the impression of being too pushy or insistent.
\n  e.g., \u30b1-\u30ad\u3067\u3082\u98df\u3079\u307e\u305b\u3093\u304b – Would you like some cake (or something)?
\n  e.g., \u30d6\u30e9\u30a6\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u306b\u3067\u3082\u96fb\u8a71\u3057\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046 – Let’s call Ms. Brown (or someone)<\/p>\n

Note<\/em>: \u3067\u3082 replaces the particles \u306f, \u304c, and \u3092 but is appended to other particles. In other contexts, \u3067\u3082 means even<\/em>.
\n  e.g., \u79c1\u3067\u3082\u308f\u304b\u308a\u307e\u3059 – Even I understand.<\/p>\n

Deciding to Do Something: …\u3053\u3068\u306b\u3059\u308b<\/h3>\n

Verb (plain, nonpast form) + \u3053\u3068\u306b\u3059\u308b – (I) will decide to (do…)
\nVerb (plain, nonpast form) + \u3053\u3068\u306b\u3057\u305f – (I) have decided to (do…) <\/p>\n

…\u3053\u3068\u306b\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b expresses a habit or routine activity; that is, I have decided to (do something) and I am doing it<\/em>. It also expresses a decision to do something and implies a strong commitment to that decision.
\n  e.g., \u6bce\u65e5\u725b\u4e73(\u304e\u3085\u3046\u306b\u3085\u3046)\u3092\u98f2\u3080\u3053\u3068\u306b\u3057\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059 – I make it a rule to drink milk every day.
\n  e.g., \u3042\u306e\u4eba\u3068\u306f\u8a71\u3055\u306a\u3044\u3053\u3068\u306b\u3057\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059
\n  – I am determined not to speak to that person \/ I’m not speaking with that person. <\/p>\n

Noun + …\u306b\u3059\u308b means to decide on (something).<\/em>
\n  e.g., \u30bf\u30af\u30b7-\u306b\u3057\u307e\u3059\u304b.\u30d0\u30b9\u306b\u3057\u307e\u3059\u304b – Shall we go by taxi or bus?<\/p>\n

Saying Whether Something Occurred Before or After: \u524d (\u307e\u3048) and \u5f8c (\u3042\u3068)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Noun<\/td>\n+ \u306e + \u524d\u306b<\/td>\n– before Noun<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Verb (dictionary form)<\/td>\n+ \u524d\u3067<\/td>\n– before Verb<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Noun<\/td>\n+ \u306e + \u5f8c\u306b<\/td>\n– after Noun<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Verb (ta-form)<\/td>\n+ \u5f8c\u3067<\/td>\n– after Verb<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

\ne.g., \u305d\u306e\u308a\u3087\u304b\u3093\u3092\u4e88\u7d04(\u3088\u3084\u304f)\u3059\u308b\u524d\u306b, \u30ac\u30a4\u30c9\u30d6\u30c3\u30af\u3067\u5024\u6bb5(\u306d\u3060\u3093)\u3092\u3057\u3089\u3079\u3066\u307f\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046
\n  – Before making a reservation at that inn, let’s check the price in the guidebook. <\/p>\n

te-form of verb + \u304b\u3089 has a meaning similar to the ta-form of a verb + \u5f8c(\u3042\u3068)\u3067 <\/p>\n

\u524d and \u5f8c are also used with time expressions.
\nWhen it directly follows a time expression, \u5f8c can be read \u3054. <\/p>\n

Time expression + \u524d(\u306b) … ago, …before
\nTime expression + \u5f8c(\u306b) … later, …after, in
\n  e.g., \u3044\u3064\u30da\u30ad\u30f3\u306b\u5e30\u308b\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304b…\u3055\u3093\u9031\u9593\u5f8c(\u3054)\u306b\u304b\u3048\u3063\u308a\u307e\u3059
\n  – When will you return to Peking? …I’ll return in 3 weeks
\n
\n\u524d\u306b and \u5f8c\u3067 can be used adverbially, meaning before<\/em> and later<\/em>.
\n  e.g., \u305d\u3053\u306b\u306f\u524d\u306b\u884c\u3063\u305f\u3053\u3068\u304c\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059 – I have been there before.
\n  e.g., \u305d\u306e\u554f\u984c(\u3082\u3093\u3060\u3044)\u306f\u5f8c\u3067\u8a71\u3057\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046 – Let’s talk about that issue later.<\/p>\n

\u3068 Conditionals<\/h3>\n

Besides \u305f\u3089, \u3068 can be used to mark the end of a conditional clause.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Conditional Clause (C1)<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Noun + \u3060 \/ \u3067\u306a\u3044<\/td>\n+ \u3068<\/td>\n+ Resultant Clause (C2)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
i-adjectives (plain, nonpast form)<\/td>\n+ \u3068<\/td>\n+ Resultant Clause (C2)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Na-adjectives + \u3060 \/ \u3067\u306a\u3044<\/td>\n+ \u3068<\/td>\n+ Resultant Clause (C2)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Verbs (plain, nonpast form)<\/td>\n+ \u3068<\/td>\n+ Resultant Clause (C2)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

\nThe \u3068 conditional can be interpreted in either of two ways, depending on whether the second clause is in the present tense or the past tense.In a present-tense sentence, a \u3068 conditional expresses the idea that the second clause is a natural or expected consequence of the first clause.It often translates into English as if<\/em> or when(ever)<\/em> and is used in statements about general principles. When used in a past-tense sentence, \u3068 is similar to ~\u305f\u3089 , translating as the English when<\/em>. Unlike ~\u305f\u3089, however, \u3068 is used when the second clause is an event or situation outside the speaker’s control.For this reason, it is often used to describe unexpected events.
\n  e.g., \u3053\u3093\u306a\u306b\u4e0d\u4fbf(\u3075\u3079\u3093)\u3060\u3068, \u8ab0(\u3060\u308c)\u3082\u6765\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3088 – If it’s this inconvenient, no one will come.
\n  e.g., \u51ac(\u3075\u3086)\u306b\u306a\u308b\u3068, \u96ea(\u3086\u304d)\u304c\u305f\u304f\u3055\u3093\u3075\u308a\u307e\u3059 – When winter comes, it snows a lot.<\/p>\n

In the last example, ~\u305f\u3089 would also be grammatical, but the meaning would change slightly.The version with \u3068 can be only a general statement of fact; it cannot describe a specific winter. The version with ~\u305f\u3089, on the other hand, would allow the interpretation that the speaker is talking about a specific winter, most likely this coming winter: When this winter comes, it will snow a lot. Unlike ~\u305f\u3089, however, \u3068 cannot be used if the second clause is a command, request, invitation, prohibition, or expression of will. In spite of this restriction, it is possible to make suggestions using a \u3068 construction, usually to express some general principle or guideline.
\n  e.g., \u3053\u306e\u30ac\u30a4\u30c9\u30d6\u30c3\u30af\u3092\u8aad\u3080\u3068\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059\u3088 – It would be good if you read this guidebook.<\/p>\n

…\u76ee(\u3081)<\/h3>\n

Adding \u76ee to the combination of numeral plus counter allows you to express ordinal numbers (e.g., first, second, etc.)
\n  e.g., \u4e00\u672c\u76ee\u306e\u9053(\u307f\u3061) – The first street
\n  e.g., \u4e94\u3064\u306e\u89d2(\u304b\u3069) – Five corners; \u4e94\u3064\u76ee\u306e\u89d2(\u304b\u3069) – the fifth corner
\n  e.g., \u4e94\u4eba\u76ee – The fifth person<\/p>\n

Commands (to subordinates)<\/h3>\n

The command form used by parents talking to children, or any authority figure giving orders to subordinates is formed as follows:
\nConjunctive verb form + \u306a\u3055\u3044
\n  e.g., \u7b54(\u3053\u305f)\u3048\u306f\u3053\u3053\u306b\u66f8\u304d\u306a\u3055\u3044 – Write your answer here.<\/p>\n

The plain form of this command (the imperative) is formed as follows:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
CLASS 1 Verbs<\/strong><\/td>\nCLASS 2 Verbs<\/strong><\/td>\nCLASS 3 Verbs<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Root + e-column hiragana
\n e.g., \u8cb7\u3046 -> \u8cb7\u3048 e.g., \u66f8\u304f -> \u66f8\u3051<\/td>\n		Root + \u308d
\n \u98df\u3079\u308b -> \u98df\u3079\u308d
\n \u898b\u308b -> \u898b\u308d<\/td>\n		Irregular
\n \u3059\u308b -> \u3057\u308d
\n \u6765\u308b -> \u6765(\u3053)\u3044<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

\nWhen you quote someone’s command indirectly, you can use the plain command + \u3068\u8a00\u3046. It does not matter what form the original command was in. Even though this command form sounds harsh and masculine when used by itself, its use within indirect quotations is completely acceptable.
\n  e.g., \u5f7c(\u304b\u308c)\u306f\u65e9\u304f\u8d77\u304d\u308d\u3068\u8a00\u3044\u307e\u3057\u305f – He said to get up quickly<\/p>\n

Admonishment and Prohibition<\/h3>\n

~\u3066\u306f\u3044\u3051\u306a\u3044 \/ …\u306a
\nAdmonition or warning (you must not …) is expressed by the following constructions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Te-form of verb    + \u306f<\/td>\n+ \u3060\u3081\u3060 (\u3060\u3081\u3067\u3059)
\n + \u306a\u3089\u306a\u3044 (\u306a\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093)
\n + \u3044\u3051\u306a\u3044 (\u3044\u3051\u307e\u305b\u3093)
\n + \u3053\u307e\u308b (\u3053\u307e\u308a\u307e\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

\nAll forms above have similar meanings, but the sense of prohibition is most strongly expressed by \u3060\u3081\u3060 followed by \u306a\u3089\u306a\u3044 and \u3044\u3051\u306a\u3044 in that order. \u3053\u307e\u308b expresses prohibition indirectly.
\n  e.g., \u3053\u3053\u306b\u8eca\u3092\u6b62\u3081\u3066\u306f\u306a\u3089\u306a\u3044 – You must not park (stop) your car here.
\n  e.g., \u304a\u9152(\u3055\u3051)\u3092\u98f2\u307f\u3059\u304e\u3066\u306f\u3060\u3081\u3067\u3059\u3088 – You mustn’t drink too much sake. <\/p>\n

A negative command is expressed as follows.
\nDictionary form of verb + \u306a – Don’t …
\n  e.g., \u305d\u3093\u306a\u3070\u304b\u306a\u3053\u3068\u306f\u3059\u308b\u306a – Don’t so such a stupid thing. <\/p>\n

The negative command form sounds harsh and strong. It is used only in public signs and by males speaking to family members, close friends, or subordinates.As with the plain command, you may use …\u306a in front of \u3068\u8a00\u3046, no matter what the original form of the negative command was, without any unpleasant connotations.
\n  e.g., \u5f7c(\u304b\u308c)\u306b\u3042\u307e\u308a\u30c6\u30ec\u30d3\u3092\u898b\u308b\u306a\u3068\u8a00\u3044\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046\u304b – Shall I tell him not to watch TV so much?<\/p>\n

Sentence-Final \u306e<\/h3>\n

The sentence-final particle \u306e, used mainly, but not exclusively, by female speakers and children, indicates (1) mild affirmation, (2) asking a question or asking for an explanation (\u306e is spoken with a rising intonation), (3) persuasion, and (4) explanation.It is one of the informal forms of the …\u3093\u3067\u3059 construction.<\/p>\n

Sentence-Final \u3088<\/h3>\n

The sentence-final particle \u3088, which is used to give new information, to impose one’s opinion, or to emphasize information, may follow \u306e.<\/p>\n

Adverbial Use of Adjectives<\/h3>\n

You can make adverbs from adjectives in the following way.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
i-adjectives<\/td>\nRoot + \u304f<\/td>\n\u5c0f\u3055\u3044 ⇒ \u5c0f\u3055\u304f
\n \u5b89(\u3084\u3059)\u3044 ⇒ \u5b89\u304f<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Na-adjectives<\/td>\nRoot + \u306b<\/td>\n\u304d\u308c\u3044 ⇒ \u304d\u308c\u3044\u306b
\n \u9759(\u3057\u305a)\u304b ⇒ \u9759\u304b\u306b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Expressing Obligation or Duty<\/h3>\n

An obligation or a duty is expressed by the following construction (One must… One has to…)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
negative, nonpast te-form (\u306a\u3044) of verb<\/td>\n+ \u306f<\/td>\n+ \u3044\u3051\u306a\u3044 (\u3044\u3051\u307e\u305b\u3093)
\n + \u306a\u3089\u306a\u3044 (\u306a\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093)
\n + \u3060\u3081\u3060 (\u3060\u3081\u3067\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

\ne.g., \u3053\u306e\u30ec\u30f3\u30bf\u30ab-\u306f6\u6642\u307e\u3067\u8fd4(\u304b\u3048)\u3055\u306a\u304f\u3066\u306f\u3044\u3051\u306a\u3044 – We have to return this rental car by six o’clock..
\ne.g., \u3082\u3063\u3068\u52c9\u5f37\u3057\u306a\u304f\u3061\u3083\u3060\u3081\u3060\u3088 – You have to study more.<\/p>\n

Another construction is…<\/p>\n\n\n\n
negative, nonpast root-form of verb<\/td>\n+ \u3051\u308c\u3070<\/td>\n+ \u3044\u3051\u306a\u3044 (\u3044\u3051\u307e\u305b\u3093)
\n + \u306a\u3089\u306a\u3044 (\u306a\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093)
\n + \u3060\u3081\u3060 (\u3060\u3081\u3067\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

\ne.g., \u591c(\u3088\u308b)9\u6642\u307e\u3067\u3053\u3053\u306b\u3044\u306a\u3051\u308c\u3070\u306a\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093 – I have to stay here until 9:00 in the evening.
\ne.g., \u6bce\u65e5, \u6b6f(\u306f)\u3092\u307f\u304c\u304b\u306a\u3051\u308c\u3070\u3060\u3081\u3067\u3059\u3088 – You must brush your teeth every day.<\/p>\n

\u6301(\u3082)\u3063\u3066\u3044\u304f versus \u6301\u3063\u3066\u304f\u308b<\/h3>\n

In Japanese, to take (things) and to bring (things) are expressed with the te-form of \u6301\u3064 (to hold, to have) followed by \u884c\u304f and \u6765\u308b, respectively.
\n  e.g., \u30d7\u30ec\u30bb\u30f3\u30c8\u306b\u30cd\u30af\u30bf\u30a4\u3092\u6301\u3063\u3066\u884c\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f – I took a necktie as a gift. <\/p>\n

Note<\/em>: there is a different pattern for bringing people.<\/p>\n

…\u3068\u8a00\u3048\u3070<\/h3>\n

…\u3068\u8a00\u3048\u3070 means speaking of, and it is used to introduce a new topic of conversation or to change the subject.
\n  e.g., \u3068\u3053\u308d\u3067,\u5c71\u7530\u3055\u3093\u3068\u8a00\u3048\u3070,\u3082\u3046\u6771\u4eac\u304b\u3089\u5e30\u3063\u3066\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f\u304b
\n  – Speaking of Mr. Yamada, has he already come back from Tokyo?
\n
\nNote<\/em>: \u3068\u8a00\u3048\u3070 can’t be used by itself (the topic under discussion must precede it); if you wish to get the same meaning without directly referring to the topic, start the sentence with \u305d\u3046\u8a00\u3048\u3070.<\/p>\n

\u9053(\u307f\u3061)\u3092\u305f\u305a\u306d\u308b (Asking the Way)<\/h3>\n

Here are just a few examples…
\ne.g., \u3059\u307f\u307e\u305b\u3093, \u99c5\u3078\u884c\u304f\u9053\u3092\u6559\u3048\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 – Excuse me, but please tell me how to get to the station
\ne.g., \u3059\u307f\u307e\u305b\u3093, \u99c5\u306b\u306f\u3069\u3046\u3084\u3063\u3066\u884c\u3063\u305f\u3089\u3044\u3044\u3093\u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046\u304b – Excuse me, how do I get to the station (lit. how should I go?)
\ne.g., \u7f8e\u8853\u9928(\u3073\u3058\u3085\u3064\u304b\u3093)\u3078\u884c\u304d\u305f\u3044\u306e\u3067\u3059\u304c, \u3069\u3053\u3067\u964d(\u304a)\u308a\u305f\u3089\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046\u304b – I would like to go to the art museum. Where should I get off?<\/p>\n

Standard Japanese<\/h3>\n

Standard Japanese is known as \u6a19\u6e96\u8a9e(\u3072\u3087\u3046\u3058\u3085\u3093\u3054)\n<\/div>\n

\n

\u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Book 2 – Chapter 2<\/h2>\n

To Do Things Like Such and Such: ~\u305f\u308a … ~\u305f\u308a<\/h3>\n

The ~\u305f\u308a … ~\u305f\u308a construction expresses such meanings as do this, do that and do others like them; do these things, among other similar activities<\/em>. Thus it is used to express only representative actions or states, with the implication that there are additional related actions or states not mentioned explicitly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
Plain past verb<\/td>\n+ \u308a<\/td>\n+ \u3059\u308b or \u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Plain past i- or na- adjective<\/td>\n+ \u308a<\/td>\n+ \u3059\u308b or \u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

\ne.g., \u6628\u65e5\u306f\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u3092\u52c9\u5f37\u3057\u305f\u308a,\u97f3\u697d(\u304a\u3093\u304c\u304f)\u3092\u805e\u3044\u305f\u308a\u3057\u307e\u3057\u305f
\n  – Yesterday I studied Japanese and listened to music (among other things) <\/p>\n

In most cases, two actions or states are expressed in this construction, but you can express more than two (usually three) or only one. The tense of the actions or states is determined by that of the sentence-final \u3059\u308b or \u3067\u3059, whether expressed or implicit. Whatever the number of actions or states, they don’t necessarily occur in the order given, unlike the ~\u3066…~\u3066 construction.<\/p>\n

When you use the affirmative and negative form of a predicate in this construction, it means sometimes yes, sometimes no. When an inconsistent state is described, the copula \u3060 is used in place of \u3059\u308b after ~\u305f\u308a, ~\u305f\u308a.
\n  e.g., \u79c1\u306e\u4f5c\u308b\u6599\u7406(\u308a\u3087\u3046\u308a)\u306f\u304a\u3044\u3057\u304b\u3063\u305f\u308a,\u304a\u3044\u3057\u304f\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f\u308a\u3060
\n  – The food I cook is sometimes delicious, sometimes not.<\/p>\n

A pair of verbs with contrastive or related meanings is often used in this construction, too, implying that the two actions or states, which are usually opposites, have been altering.
\n  e.g., \u5b50\u4f9b(\u3053\u3069\u3082)\u304c\u4f55\u5ea6(\u306a\u3093\u3069)\u3082\u5bb6\u3092\u51fa\u305f\u308a, \u5165\u3063\u305f\u308a\u3057\u307e\u3057\u305f
\n  – The children kept going in and out of the house.<\/p>\n

\u3070\u304b\u308a<\/h3>\n

Noun + \u3070\u304b\u308a means only (one thing), nothing (or little else) but (one thing). \u3070\u304b\u308a is different from \u3060\u3051 which also means only, in a significant way. Compare these sentences.
\n
\n\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u3060\u3051\u52c9\u5f37\u3057\u305f – I studied only Japanese
\n\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u3070\u304b\u308a\u52c9\u5f37\u3057\u305f – I studied only Japanese and nothing else
\n 
\nThe first sentence simply states that the speaker studied only Japanese. The second sentence implies that the speaker studied only Japanese in spite of the fact that he or she should have studied other subjects; it implies that the speaker ignored other subjects. Because of this implication, \u3070\u304b\u308a is sometimes used to express unfairness, bias, or other negative meanings.<\/p>\n

Expressing a Purpose: …\u305f\u3081(\u306b)<\/h3>\n

Noun + \u306e + \u305f\u3081(\u306b) – for the sake of (someone, something)
\nVerb (plain, nonpast) + \u305f\u3081(\u306b) – in order to (do something)
\n  e.g., \u4f1a\u8b70(\u304b\u3044\u304e)\u306b\u3067\u308b\u305f\u3081\u306b\u4eac\u90fd\u3078\u3044\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f – He went to Kyoto in order to attend a meeting
\n  e.g., \u6797\u3055\u3093\u306e\u305f\u3081\u306b,\u30b1-\u30ad\u3092\u4f5c(\u3064\u304f)\u3063\u305f – I made a cake for Mr. Hayashi.<\/p>\n

Noun + \u306e + \u305f\u3081 + \u306e – intended, made especially for (someone or something)
\nVerb (plain, nonpast) + \u305f\u3081 + \u306e – for (the purpose of doing something)
\n  e.g., \u3053\u308c\u306f\u5b50\u4f9b\u306e\u305f\u3081\u306e\u30b2-\u30e0\u3067\u3059 – This is a game for children
\n  e.g., \u3053\u308c\u306f\u304a\u8336\u3092\u98f2\u3080\u305f\u3081\u306e\u8336\u308f\u3093\u3067\u3059 – This is a cup for drinking Japanese tea.<\/p>\n

\u305f\u3081 is a noun meaning purpose, benefit, reason, cause. When \u305f\u3081(\u306b) is used to mean because, it may be preceded by plain, past, or nonpast forms of verbs and adjectives, or by the pronoun forms of the copula.
\n  e.g., \u671f\u672b(\u304d\u307e\u3064)\u8a66\u9a13(\u3057\u3051\u3093)\u304c\u3042\u3063\u305f\u305f\u3081\u306b,\u30b3\u30f3\u30b5-\u30c8\u3078\u884c\u3051\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f
\n  – Because there was a term test, I couldn’t go to the concert
\n  e.g., \u3042\u307e\u308a\u306b\u3082\u9ad8(\u305f\u304b)\u304b\u3063\u305f\u305f\u3081,\u3060\u308c\u3082\u305d\u306e\u7d75(\u3048)\u3092\u8cb7\u3044\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f
\n  – Because it was too expensive, nobody bought that painting
\n  e.g., \u82f1\u8a9e\u304c\u4e0b\u624b\u306a\u305f\u3081,\u304b\u308c\u306e\u8a00\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3053\u3068\u304c\u308f\u304b\u3089\u306a\u3044
\n  – Because he is poor at speaking English, I cannot understand what he is saying.
\n  e.g., \u3042\u307e\u308a\u306b\u3082\u9759(\u3057\u305a)\u304b\u3060\u3063\u305f(or \u3057\u305a\u304b\u306a)\u305f\u3081,\u4eba\u304c\u3044\u308b\u3068\u306f\u601d\u308f\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f
\n  – Because it was so quiet, I didn’t think that anyone was there.<\/p>\n

When \u305f\u3081 is used to express reason or cause, it can be replaced with \u304b\u3089 or \u306e\u3067 in most cases, with little change in meaning other than that \u305f\u3081 sounds somewhat more formal.<\/p>\n

\u305a\u3064<\/h3>\n

\u305a\u3064 preceded by a number plus counter or by a word expressing quantity means each, of each, at a time.
\n  e.g., \u5973\u5b50(\u3058\u3087\u3057)\u5b66\u751f\u3068\u7537\u5b50(\u3060\u3093\u3057)\u5b66\u751f,8\u4eba\u305a\u3064\u3044\u307e\u3059
\n  – There are eight female and eight male students (lit. there are 8 each of female and male).
\n  e.g., \u307f\u3093\u306a\u306b\u30ce-\u30c8\u3092\u4e00\u518a(\u3055\u3064)\u305a\u3064\u3042\u3052\u3088\u3046 – I will give everyone one notebook each
\n  e.g., \u5c11\u3057\u305a\u3064\u308f\u304b\u3063\u3066\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f – I have come to understand gradually (lit. a little at a time)<\/p>\n

Giving and Receiving<\/h3>\n

In Japanese, there are five verbs corresponding to to give<\/em> and two verbs corresponding to to receive<\/em>. The choice of verbs depends on the social relationship between the giver and the receiver. The constraints on the social relationship can be summarized as follows:<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. G \u304c R \u306b X \u3092\u3042\u3052\u308b (G gives X to R)
    \n The giver can be anyone (typically, speaker or in-group person).
    \n The recipient cannot include the speaker. The giver and the recipient are socially equal.
    \n e.g., \u304b\u308c\u306f\u5f7c\u5973(\u304b\u306e\u3058\u3087)\u306b\u672c\u3092\u3042\u3052\u307e\u3057\u305f – He gave her a book<\/li>\n
  2. G \u304c R \u306b X \u3092\u304f\u308c\u308b (G gives X to R)
    \n The recipient is the speaker or an in-group person, someone closer to the speaker than the giver.
    \n The giver is socially equal or inferior to the recipient.
    \n e.g., \u304b\u308c\u3082\u3042\u306a\u305f\u306b\u672c\u3092\u304f\u308c\u307e\u3057\u305f\u306d – He too (along with others) gave you a book, huh?<\/li>\n
  3. R \u304c G \u306b (\u304b\u3089) X \u3092\u3082\u3089\u3046 (R receives X from G)
    \n The recipient can be anyone. The giver is socially equal or inferior to the recipient.
    \n e.g., \u304b\u308c\u306f\u5f7c\u5973(\u304b\u306e\u3058\u3087)\u306b(\u304b\u3089)\u672c\u3092\u3082\u3089\u3044\u307e\u3057\u305f – He received a book from her.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    \nIn pattern 1, when the recipient is an in-group superior or an out-group person, \u3055\u3057\u3042\u3052\u308b is used instead of \u3042\u3052\u308b. In patterns 2 and 3, when the giver is an in-group superior person or an out-group person, \u304f\u3060\u3055\u308b and \u3044\u305f\u3060\u304f are used instead of \u304f\u308c\u308b and \u3082\u3089\u3046, respectively.
    \n  e.g., \u79c1\u306f\u5148\u751f\u306b\u672c\u3092\u3055\u3057\u3042\u3052\u307e\u3057\u305f – I gave a book to my professor
    \n  e.g., \u5148\u751f\u306f[\u79c1\u306b]\u672c\u3092\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044\u307e\u3057\u305f – My professor gave me a book
    \n  e.g., \u79c1\u306f\u5148\u751f\u304b\u3089\u672c\u3092\u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f – I was given a book by my professor<\/p>\n

    In pattern 1 when the recipient is notably inferior to the giver, \u3084\u308b is used. [Note<\/em>: many Japanese consider \u3084\u308b to be vulgar and use \u3042\u3052\u308b even with inferiors]
    \n  e.g., \u79c1\u306f\u72ac\u306b\u30c9\u30c3\u30b0\u30d5-\u30c9\u3092\u3084\u308a\u307e\u3057\u305f – I gave some dog food to my dog.<\/p>\n

    Doing something for the sake or the benefit of someone else is considered in Japanese to be the same as giving and receiving a benefit and uses the following form:
    \nTe-form of verb + \u3042\u3052\u308b, \u3055\u3057\u3042\u3052\u308b, \u3084\u308b
    \nTe-form of verb + \u304f\u308c\u308b, \u304f\u3060\u3055\u308b
    \nTe-form of verb + \u3082\u3089\u3046, \u3044\u305f\u3060\u304f
    \nThe choice of verbs follows the same rules as presented earlier.
    \n  e.g., \u5c71\u672c\u3055\u3093\u306e\u8eca\u3092\u6d17(\u3042\u3089)\u3063\u3066\u3042\u3052\u307e\u3057\u305f – I washed Ms. Yamamoto’s car for her.
    \n  e.g., \u5148\u751f\u306e\u304b\u3070\u3093\u3092\u6301\u3063\u3066\u3055\u3057\u3042\u3052\u307e\u3057\u305f – I carried my professor’s bag for him.
    \n  e.g., \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u306f\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u3092\u304a\u3057\u3048\u3066\u304f\u308c\u307e\u3057\u305f – Mr. Mimura taught me Japanese.
    \n  e.g., \u79c1\u306f\u6797\u3055\u3093\u306b\u30a2\u30a4\u30ed\u30f3\u3092\u304b\u3051\u3066\u3082\u3089\u3044\u307e\u3057\u305f – I had Ms. Hayashi do my ironing.<\/p>\n

    When you ask for permission (may I do …), use the following constructions (in order of increasing politeness)
    \nTe-form of verb + \u3082 + \u3044\u3044?
    \nTe-form of verb + \u3082 + \u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059\u304b
    \nTe-form of verb + \u3082 + \u304b\u307e\u3044\u307e\u305b\u3093\u304b
    \nTe-form of verb + \u3082 + \u3088\u308d\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046\u304b <\/p>\n

    Note<\/em>:
    \n  the \u3082 may be dropped
    \n  the te-form + \u3082 means even if<\/em>… Thus, this construction literally means, is it o.k. even if…? <\/p>\n

    To respond to a request:
    \n\u3048\u3048,\u3069\u3046\u305e – Yes, please
    \n\u3048\u3048,\u3051\u3063\u3053\u3046\u3067\u3059\u3088 – Yes, it’s all right
    \n\u3048\u3048,\u3054\u81ea\u7531(\u3058\u3086\u3046)\u306b – Yes, as you like it
    \n\u3048\u3048,\u3069\u3046\u305e\u304a\u4f7f(\u3064\u304b)\u3044\u4e0b\u3055\u3044 – Yes, please use it <\/p>\n

    When this construction appears before \u304b\u3089 and is followed by a wish, command, or request, the speaker is stating that he or she is accepting a possibly unfavorable limitation.
    \n  e.g., \u9ad8\u304f\u3066\u3082\u3044\u3044\u304b\u3089,\u305d\u306e\u3048\u304c\u307b\u3057\u3044 – It’s OK even if it is expensive; I want that picture.
    \n  e.g., \u4e00\u5ea6\u3067\u3082\u3044\u3044\u304b\u3089\u3042\u305d\u3053\u3078\u884c\u3063\u3066\u307f\u305f\u3044 – I want to try going there, even if it’s just once.<\/p>\n

    Interrogatives (such as \u4f55, \u3060\u308c, \u3044\u3064, \u3069\u3053, \u3069\u3046, and \u3044\u304f\u3089) plus the te-form of the verb + \u3066\u3082\u3044\u3044 mean it is all right no matter what\/who\/where\/when\/how\/how much<\/em>
    \n  e.g., \u4f55\u3092\u98df\u3079\u3066\u3082\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059\u3088 – You may eat anything
    \n  e.g., \u3053\u3053\u306f\u3060\u308c\u304c\u6765\u3066\u3082\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059 – Anyone can come here (lit. It is alright whoever comes here)<\/p>\n

    The negative te-form of a verb followed by (\u3082)\u3044\u3044 means you need not (do something)<\/em> or you don’t have to (do something)<\/em>. [literally it is all right if (you don’t do something)<\/em>]\n  e.g., \u3053\u3053\u306f\u304a\u91d1\u3092\u6255(\u306f\u3089)\u308f\u306a\u304f\u3066\u3082\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059 – You don’t have to pay here.
    \n  e.g., \u3053\u306e\u4ed5\u4e8b(\u3057\u3054\u3068)\u3092\u3057\u306a\u304f\u3066\u3082\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059\u304b – Is it all right even if I don’t do this work?<\/p>\n

    Negative Request: ~\u306a\u3044\u3067\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044<\/h3>\n

    The following construction is used to express a negative request (in decreasing order of politeness).
    \nNegative te-form of a verb + \u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044\u307e\u305b\u3093\u304b
    \nNegative te-form of a verb + \u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044
    \nNegative te-form of a verb + \u304f\u308c <\/p>\n

    Note<\/em>:<\/p>\n

      \n
    • It is sometimes easy to confuse the negative te-form of the verb, ~\u306a\u3044\u3067, with the te-form of the ~\u306a\u3044 form of the verb, which is ~\u306a\u304f\u3066. The ~\u306a\u3044\u3067 form is used mostly in negative commands and for the meaning of without doing. The ~\u306a\u304f\u3066 form is used in other constructions, such as ~\u306a\u304f\u3066\u306f\u3044\u3051\u306a\u3044<\/li>\n
    • \u304f\u308c is only used by male speakers giving orders to close friends, family members, or subordinates.
      e.g., \u305d\u3053\u306b\u5ea7(\u3059\u308f)\u3089\u306a\u3044\u3067\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 – Please don’t sit there.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

      In informal speech, \u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 is often omitted.
      \n  e.g., \u305d\u3093\u306a\u3053\u3068\u8a00\u308f\u306a\u3044\u3067\u3088 – Don’t say such a thing.<\/p>\n

      …\u4e2d(\u3061\u3085\u3046)<\/h3>\n

      \u4e2d attached to a noun makes a word meaning in the middle of (something), or in progress.
      \n  e.g., \u5de5\u4e8b(\u3053\u3046\u3058)\u4e2d – under construction
      \n  e.g., \u6e96\u5099(\u3058\u3085\u3093\u3073)\u4e2d – in preparation (a.k.a. closed for business at a store)
      \n  e.g., \u55b6\u696d(\u3048\u3044\u304e\u3087\u3046)\u4e2d – open for business
      \n  e.g., \u8a71(\u306f\u306a)\u3057\u4e2d – (telephone) is busy
      \n  e.g., \u4f7f\u7528(\u3057\u3088\u3046)\u4e2d – in use (\u4f7f\u7528 – use)
      \n  e.g., \u5916\u51fa(\u304c\u3044\u3057\u3085\u3064)\u4e2d – out (of the office, etc.)<\/p>\n

      \u3069\u3046\u305e\u9060\u616e(\u3048\u3093\u308a\u3087)\u3057\u306a\u3044\u3067\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044<\/h3>\n

      Japanese people typically refuse when they are first offered food, gifts and favors. The person who is offering these things then says, \u3069\u3046\u305e\u9060\u616e\u3057\u306a\u3044\u3067\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 (please don’t hold back, or please don’t hesitate)
      \n  e.g., \u4f55\u3082\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093\u304c, \u3069\u3046\u305e\u3081\u3057\u3042\u304c\u3063\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044
      \n  – We don’t have anything (special), but please go ahead and eat.
      \n  e.g., \u3044\u3044\u3048, \u3069\u3046\u305e\u304a\u304b\u307e\u3044\u306a\u304f – No, please don’t trouble yourself
      \n    Note<\/em>: phrase used for polite refusals, not sincere refusals.
      \n  e.g., \u3069\u3046\u305e\u9060\u616e(\u3048\u3093\u308a\u3087)\u3057\u306a\u3044\u3067\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 – Please help yourself.
      \n  e.g., \u305d\u3046\u3067\u3059\u304b. \u3067\u306f,\u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u307e\u3059 – Really? Then I will have some.<\/p>\n

      Offering Advice: … \u307b\u3046\u304c\u3044\u3044<\/h3>\n

      The following construction is used to offer advice or make a strong suggestion.
      \nta-form of verb + \u307b\u3046\u304c\u3044\u3044(\u3067\u3059)
      \nNonpast, negative form of verb + \u307b\u3046\u304c\u3044\u3044(\u3067\u3059) <\/p>\n

        e.g., \u96fb\u8eca\u304c\u6765\u307e\u3059\u3088. \u3044\u305d\u3044\u3060\u307b\u3046\u304c\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059 – The train is coming. You’d better hurry up.
      \n  e.g., \u3042\u306e\u7a93(\u307e\u3069)\u306b\u30ab-\u30c6\u30f3\u3092\u3064\u3051\u305f\u307b\u3046\u304c\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059 – It would be better to put a curtain on that window.
      \n  e.g., \u3042\u307e\u308a\u304a\u9152(\u3055\u3051)\u306f\u98f2\u307e\u306a\u3044\u307b\u3046\u304c\u3044\u3044\u3058\u3083\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093\u304b – It’s better for you not to drink too much sake.<\/p>\n

      Expressing Different States of Action: …\u3068\u3053\u308d<\/h3>\n

      The noun \u3068\u3053\u308d (place), used with different forms of verb, expresses different states of actions.
      \nDictionary form of verb (nonpast, plain, affirmative) + \u3068\u3053\u308d\u3060 – to be about to (do something)
      \nte-form of verb + \u3044\u308b + \u3068\u3053\u308d\u3060 – to be in the process of (doing something)<\/p>\n

        e.g., \u79c1\u306f\u8eca\u3092\u6d17(\u3042\u3089)\u3046\u3068\u3053\u308d\u3067\u3059 – I am about to wash my car.
      \n  e.g., \u30d6\u30e9\u30a6\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u305d\u306e\u6642(\u3068\u304d), \u51fa\u304b\u3051\u308b\u3068\u3053\u308d\u3067\u3057\u305f – Ms. Brown was about to go out then
      \n  e.g., \u79c1\u306f\u90e8\u5c4b(\u3078\u3084)\u3092\u305d\u3046\u3058\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3068\u3053\u308d\u3067\u3059 – I am in the midst of cleaning the room<\/p>\n

      The ~\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3068\u3053\u308d construction is similar to the ~\u3066\u3044\u308b construction, but it focuses more on the exact point in time. The ~\u3066\u3044\u308b form can denote long-term, ongoing processes, as in \u82f1\u8a9e\u3092\u52c9\u5f37\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b (I am studying English), which allows for the possibility that the speaker is referring merely to being enrolled in a course. On the other hand, \u82f1\u8a9e\u3092\u52c9\u5f37\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3068\u3053\u308d\u3067\u3059 can mean only I am studying English at this moment.<\/p>\n

      \u3057\u304b…\u306a\u3044 vs. \u3060\u3051<\/h3>\n

      There is a subtle difference between the two ways of saying only. The \u3060\u3051 construction implies that the subject has only a certain amount of something, or did only a certain thing, but that it is sufficient. For example, \u30ae\u30d6\u30bd\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u3060\u3051\u306b\u4f1a\u3044\u307e\u3057\u305f implies that you met only Ms. Gibson, but she was the only person you were supposed to meet anyway. The \u3057\u304b…\u306a\u3044 construction on the other hand, implies that whatever the subject did or has is insufficient. \u30ae\u30d6\u30bd\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u306b\u3057\u304b\u4f1a\u3044\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3067\u3057\u305f implies that you expected (or were expected) to meet someone else but for some reason did not. If you find the negative construction confusing, you may want to think of it as meaning except<\/em>, as in I didn’t meet anyone except Ms. Gibson<\/em>.<\/p>\n

      Describing a Prepatory Action: ~\u3066\u304a\u304f<\/h3>\n

      The following construction means to (do something) in advance<\/em>, or in preparation for future use<\/em>
      \nte-form of verb + \u304a\u304f (\u304a\u304f means to put, to place)
      \n  e.g., \u30af\u30e9\u30b9\u306e\u524d\u306b\u6559\u79d1\u66f8(\u304d\u3087\u3046\u304b\u3057\u3087)\u3092\u8aad\u3093\u3067\u304a\u3044\u305f – I read the textbook before class.<\/p>\n

      ~\u3066\u304a\u304f is often contracted to ~\u3068\u304f or ~\u3069\u304f in colloquial speech.
      \n  e.g., \u3053\u308c\u98df\u3079\u3068\u304d\u306a\u3055\u3044 – Eat this ahead of time
      \n  e.g., \u3053\u308c\u8aad\u3093\u3069\u3044\u305f – I read this in advance.\n<\/div>\n

      \n

      \u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Book 2 – Chapter 3<\/h2>\n

      How to Do Something: ~\u65b9(\u304b\u305f)<\/h3>\n

      The conjunctive form of a verb (stem of \u307e\u3059 form) followed by ~\u65b9 makes a phrase meaning how to (do something)<\/em> or the way of (doing something)<\/em>
      \n  e.g., \u3042\u306e\u4eba\u306e\u8a71\u3057\u65b9\u306f\u3061\u3087\u3063\u3068\u5909(\u304b)\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b – That person’s way of speaking is a bit unusual.<\/p>\n

      \u65b9 is a noun meaning method<\/em> or way<\/em> in this context, so when you add it to a verb, that verb becomes a noun. For this reason, \u3092 is replaced by \u306e.<\/p>\n

      \u304b\u3057\u3089 \/ \u304b\u306a (\u304b\u306a\u3042)<\/h3>\n

      \u304b\u3057\u3089 is an informal sentence final phrase that female speakers use when wondering about something. This phrase is attached to the informal ending of predicates, nouns or pronouns.
      \n  e.g., \u30c1\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u75c5\u6c17(\u3073\u3087\u3046\u304d)\u304b\u3057\u3089 – I wonder if Ms. Chin is sick <\/p>\n

      In the same context, male speakers use \u304b\u306a or \u304b\u306a\u3042
      \n  e.g., \u30c1\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u3082\u3046\u30c7\u30d1-\u30c8\u3078\u884c\u3063\u305f\u304b\u306a – I wonder if Ms. Chin already went to the department store<\/p>\n

      Transitive and Intransitive Verbs<\/h3>\n

      Verbs that semantically require a direct object marked by the particle \u3092 are called transitive verbs (\u305f\u3069\u3046\u3057). They represent a situation in which the subject’s (doer’s) action affects the direct object or the subject acts on the direct object. Verbs that require a subject but no direct object are called intransitive verbs (\u3058\u3069\u3046\u3057). They express a situation in which the subject undergoes or performs an action on its own. In English all but three verb pairs (rise\/raise, lie\/lay, fall\/fell) function as either transitive or intransitive. In Japanese, there are dozens of transitive\/intransitive verb pairs. Some of the most common are listed below:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
      Transitive Verbs<\/strong><\/td>\nDefinition<\/strong><\/td>\nIntransitive Verbs<\/strong><\/td>\nDefinition<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u4e0a(\u3042)\u3052\u308b<\/td>\nto raise<\/td>\n\u4e0a(\u3042)\u304c\u308b<\/td>\nto rise; go up<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u958b(\u3042)\u3051\u308b<\/td>\nto open (something)<\/td>\n\u958b(\u3042)\u304f<\/td>\nto open (by itself)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u3042\u3064\u3081\u308b<\/td>\nto gather (things,people) together; to collect<\/td>\n\u3042\u3064\u307e\u308b<\/td>\nto gather together; to congregate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u51fa(\u3060)\u3059<\/td>\nto put out; to take out<\/td>\n\u51fa(\u3067)\u308b<\/td>\nto come\/go out; to appear<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u59cb(\u306f\u3058)\u3081\u308b<\/td>\nto begin (something)<\/td>\n\u59cb\u307e\u308b<\/td>\nto begin<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u5165(\u3044)\u308c\u308b<\/td>\nto put in; to insert; to include<\/td>\n\u5165(\u306f\u3044)\u308b<\/td>\nto enter, to be included, to fit inside<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u8fd4(\u304b\u3048)\u3059\/\u5e30(\u304b\u3048)\u3059<\/td>\nto return; to give back<\/td>\n\u8fd4(\u304b\u3048)\u308b\/\u5e30(\u304b\u3048)\u308b<\/td>\nto return (home)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u9593\u9055\u3048\u308b(\u307e\u3061\u304c\u3048\u308b)<\/td>\nto make a mistake about a thing<\/td>\n\u9593\u9055\u3046\u3046(\u307e\u3061\u304c\u3046)<\/td>\nto be in error<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u898b(\u307f)\u3064\u3051\u308b<\/td>\nto find<\/td>\n\u898b\u3064\u304b\u308b<\/td>\nto be found<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u76f4(\u306a\u304a)\u3059<\/td>\nto fix<\/td>\n\u76f4(\u306a\u304a)\u308b<\/td>\nto get better<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u6b8b(\u306e\u3053)\u3059<\/td>\nto leave behind<\/td>\n\u6b8b(\u306e\u3053)\u308b<\/td>\nto be left; to remain<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u843d(\u304a)\u3068\u3059<\/td>\nto drop (something)<\/td>\n\u843d(\u304a)\u3061\u308b<\/td>\nto fall (from a height)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u7d42(\u304a\u308f)\u308b\/\u7d42\u3048\u308b<\/td>\nto end (something)<\/td>\n\u7d42(\u304a\u308f)\u308b<\/td>\nto (come to an) end<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u4e0b(\u3055)\u3052\u308b<\/td>\nto lower (something)<\/td>\n\u4e0b(\u3055)\u304c\u308b<\/td>\nto go down; to dangle<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u9589(\u3057)\u3081\u308b<\/td>\nto close (something)<\/td>\n\u9589(\u3057)\u307e\u308b<\/td>\nto close<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u8d77(\u304a)\u3053\u3059<\/td>\nto wake (someone) up<\/td>\n\u8d77(\u304a)\u304d\u308b<\/td>\nto wake up<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u304b\u3051\u308b<\/td>\nto hang (something on); to lay (something) on (something else)<\/td>\n\u304b\u304b\u308b<\/td>\nto hang (on a vertical surface); to lean; to take (time, money, etc.)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u4ed8(\u3064)\u3051\u308b\/\u3064\u3051\u308b<\/td>\nto attach; to turn (something) on<\/td>\n\u4ed8(\u3064)\u304f\/\u3064\u304f<\/td>\nto stick; to become attached; to go on<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u6d88(\u3051)\u3059<\/td>\nto extinguish; to put out<\/td>\n\u6d88(\u304d)\u3048\u308b<\/td>\nto be extinguished; to go off; to disappear<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u4e26(\u306a\u3089)\u3079\u308b<\/td>\nto line (things) up<\/td>\n\u4e26(\u306a\u3089)\u3076<\/td>\nto get in line<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u6b62(\u3068)\u3081\u308b<\/td>\nto stop (something)<\/td>\n\u6b62(\u3068)\u307e\u308b<\/td>\nto come to a stop<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u52d5(\u3046\u3054)\u304b\u3059<\/td>\nto set in motion; to move (a thing)<\/td>\n\u52d5(\u3046\u3054)\u304f<\/td>\nto move; to be in motion<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u4e57(\u306e)\u305b\u308b<\/td>\nto put on a vehicle; to give a ride to<\/td>\n\u4e57(\u306e)\u308b<\/td>\nto board a vehicle; to ride<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u5bdd(\u306d)\u304b\u3059<\/td>\nto put to bed<\/td>\n\u5bdd(\u306d)\u308b<\/td>\nto go to bed; to sleep<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u306a\u304f\u3059<\/td>\nto lose<\/td>\n\u306a\u304f\u306a\u308b<\/td>\nto get lost; to disappear<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u3053\u308f\u3059<\/td>\nto break (something)<\/td>\n\u3053\u308f\u308c\u308b<\/td>\nto become broken<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u7acb(\u305f)\u3066\u308b \/\u5efa(\u305f)\u3066\u308b<\/td>\nto erect; to build<\/td>\n\u7acb(\u305f)\u3064 \/ \u5efa(\u305f)\u3064<\/td>\nto stand; to be built<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u901a(\u3068\u304a)\u3059<\/td>\nto send thru; to allow to pass thru<\/td>\n\u901a(\u3068\u304a)\u308b<\/td>\nto pass through; to go along (a road)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u56de(\u307e\u308f)\u3059<\/td>\nto turn (something); to send around<\/td>\n\u56de(\u307e\u308f)\u308b<\/td>\nto turn around; to go around<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u5207(\u304d)\u308b<\/td>\nto cut<\/td>\n\u5207(\u304d)\u308c\u308b<\/td>\nto be cut<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u5207(\u304d)\u3089\u3059<\/td>\nto run out of; to use up <\/td>\n\u5207(\u304d)\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n to be used up<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      \u304b\u3048\u308b<\/td>\nto change (something)<\/td>\n \u304b\u308f\u308b<\/td>\nto (undergo) change<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

      \ne.g., \u30d6\u30e9\u30a6\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u90e8\u5c4b(\u3078\u3084)\u306e\u96fb\u6c17(\u3067\u3093\u304d)\u3092\u6d88(\u3051)\u3057\u307e\u3057\u305f – Ms. Brown turned off the light in the room.
      \ne.g., \u6025(\u304d\u3085\u3046)\u306b\u96fb\u6c17(\u3067\u3093\u304d)\u3092\u6d88(\u304d)\u3048\u307e\u3057\u305f – Suddenly the lights went off.<\/p>\n

      The noun or pronoun that is the object of Japanese transitive verb is not always expressed explicitly, so the lack of an expressed direct object does not necessarily mean that the verb in question is intransitive.
      \n  e.g., \u3053\u306e\u3078\u3093\u306b\u6b62(\u3068)\u3081\u307e\u3059\u304b – Shall we stop (the car) around here?<\/p>\n

      In some cases, the verbs are intransitive, although the particle \u3092 is used.
      \n  e.g., \u3042\u306e\u9053(\u307f\u3061)\u3092\u901a(\u3068\u304a)\u3063\u3066, \u516c\u5712(\u3053\u3046\u3048\u3093)\u3078\u884c\u3063\u305f – Going along that street, we went to the park<\/p>\n

      Note<\/em>: there is no rule per se, but often<\/em> verbs ending in \u3048\u308b or \u3059 are transitive and those ending in \u3042\u308b are intransitive<\/p>\n

      Expressing Results and States of Being: ~\u3066\u3042\u308b and ~\u3066\u3044\u308b<\/h3>\n

      The te-form of a transitive verb indicates that something is in a state of having already been done with some purpose or for some reason. It can indicate that something is (or is not) ready. The agent of the action is commonly omitted, because he or she is unknown, unimportant, or obvious from the context. In this construction, the direct object can be marked by either \u304c or \u3092. <\/p>\n

      te-form of transitive verb + \u3042\u308b – something has been done; someone has done something
      \n  e.g., \u30ac\u30ec-\u30b8\u306e\u524d\u306b\u8eca\u304c\u6b62(\u3068)\u3081\u3066\u3042\u308b\u306e\u3067,\u79c1\u306e\u8eca\u304c\u51fa\u305b\u307e\u305b\u3093
      \n  – A car has been parked in front of the garage, so I cannot move my car out.<\/p>\n

      For most of the transitive-intransitive pairs, the te-form of the intransitive verb plus \u3044\u308b means that something is in a state brought about by an unidentified individual or be a natural force.
      \nte-form of intransitive verb + \u3044\u308b – something occurred, and the resulting state remains
      \n  e.g., \u5c71\u53e3\u3055\u3093\u306e\u8eca\u304c\u6b62\u307e\u3063\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059 – Mr. Yamaguchi’s car has stopped<\/p>\n

      The te-form of the verb + \u3044\u308b can express an action in progress. How do you know which interpretation is correct? The answer lies in the nature of the verb. Most transitive verbs denote actions that can be continued indefinitely. Most intransitive verbs that have transitive partners are so-called punctual verbs, which describe either or situations (from a Japanese point of view, a door that is not completely closed is open, etc. Thus, there is no short, simple way to describe the transition from one such state to another in Japanese. So, \u9589(\u3057)\u307e\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b always means is closed and cannot mean is closing.)<\/p>\n

      Expressing an Attempt<\/h3>\n

      The following construction means to attempt to; to try to; to be about to…
      \nPlain, volitional form of the verb + \u3068\u3059\u308b \/ \u3068\u3057\u307e\u3059
      \n  e.g., \u7a93(\u307e\u3069)\u3092\u958b(\u3042)\u3051\u3088\u3046\u3068\u3057\u305f\u304c, \u958b\u304b\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f – I tried to open the window, but it wouldn’t open.<\/p>\n

      Difference between te-form + \u307f\u308b and volitional + \u3068\u3059\u308b<\/h3>\n

      The te-form + \u307f\u308b construction really means to do something to see what will happen or what it is like. In contrast, the volitional + \u3068\u3059\u308b construction often implies that although the desire was present or some effort was made, the action was ultimately impossible or futile, especially when the construction is used in the past tense. In the present progressive tense, its only connotation is that the subject is attempting to do something.
      \n  e.g., \u7d0d\u8c46(\u306a\u3063\u3068\u3046)\u3092\u98df\u3079\u3066\u307f\u307e\u3057\u305f
      \n  – I tried eating nattoo (to see what it was like)
      \n  e.g., \u7d0d\u8c46\u3092\u98df\u3079\u3088\u3046\u3068\u3057\u305f\u3051\u308c\u3069, \u307e\u305a\u304f\u3066\u98df\u3079\u3089\u308c\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f
      \n  – I tried to eat nattoo, but it tasted bad and I couldn’t eat it.
      \n  e.g., \u3057\u3088\u3046\u3068\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3093\u3060\u3051\u3069, \u306a\u304b\u306a\u304b\u3046\u307e\u304f\u3044\u304b\u306a\u3044\u306e\u3088
      \n  – I’ve been trying (to do something), but it’s not going well.<\/p>\n

      The volitional + \u3068\u3059\u308b construction has an additional use, which is to describe interrupted actions, particularly when the construction appears in its ~\u305f\u3089 form or before \u6642 or \u3068\u3053\u308d. These are similar to the English just as I was about to…
      \n  e.g., \u5bb6\u3092\u51fa\u3088\u3046\u3068\u3057\u305f\u3089, \u30d6\u30e9\u30a6\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u304c\u6765\u305f
      \n  – Just as I was about to leave the house, Ms. Brown came.
      \n  e.g., \u304a\u98a8\u5442(\u3075\u308d)\u306b\u5165(\u306f\u3044)\u308d\u3046\u3068\u3057\u305f\u3068\u3053\u308d, \u96fb\u8a71\u304c\u306a\u308a\u307e\u3057\u305f
      \n  – Just as I was about to get into the bath, the telephone rang.<\/p>\n

      Expressing a Just-Completed Action: The ta-form of the verb + \u3070\u304b\u308a \/ \u3068\u3053\u308d\u3060<\/h3>\n

      The following expression is used when only a little time has passed since something happened.
      \nta-form of verb + \u3070\u304b\u308a(\u3067\u3059)
      \nta-form of verb + \u3068\u3053\u308d(\u3067\u3059)<\/p>\n

      \u3070\u304b\u308a is a particle meaning only<\/em> or nothing but what is stated<\/em>, whereas \u3068\u3053\u308d is a noun meaning place<\/em>, and by extension, point in time<\/em>.
      \n  e.g., \u3053\u306e\u30ef-\u30d7\u30ed\u306f\u8cb7\u3063\u305f\u3070\u304b\u308a\u3067, \u307e\u3060\u4f7f(\u3064\u304b)\u3044\u65b9\u304c\u3088\u304f\u308f\u304b\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093
      \n  – I just bought this word processor, so I don’t know how to use it yet.<\/p>\n

      The ta-form with \u3068\u3053\u308d and the ta-form with \u3070\u304b\u308a differ slightly in nuance. The former implies that the action occurred a very short time ago, perhaps even only a few minutes ago, but almost certainly within the same day. The latter implies that the action occurred a relatively short time ago, but the definition of a "relatively short time" varies according to the context. For example, if you were talking about current conditions in New York and you had come back from a trip there ten days before, you could introduce your remarks by saying:
      \n\u5341\u65e5\u524d\u306b\u30cb\u30e5-\u30e8-\u30af\u304b\u3089\u5e30\u3063\u3066\u304d\u305f\u3070\u304b\u308a\u306a\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304c – I just returned from New York ten days ago, and…
      \nThe same sentence with \u3068\u3053\u308d would be ungrammatical, because ten days is too long to be considered a point in time.<\/p>\n

      Without Doing: ~\u306a\u3044\u3067<\/h3>\n

      The negative form (the \u306a\u3044 form) of verbs + \u3067, the negative te-form of the verb is used to make an adverbial clause meaning without doing…
      \n  e.g., \u9774(\u304f\u3064)\u3092\u8131(\u306c)\u304c\u306a\u3044\u3067, \u5bb6\u306e\u4e2d\u306b\u5165\u3063\u305f\u3067\u3059\u304b
      \n  – You went into a house without taking off your shoes?<\/p>\n

      The ~\u306a\u3044\u3067 form can be replaced with the negative te-form, ~\u306a\u304f\u3066 when the subsequent clause expresses emotions, judgements, or reasons. In fact, the alternative with ~\u306a\u304f\u3066 is probably more common in these cases.
      \n  e.g., \u4eba\u304c\u3042\u307e\u308a\u6765\u306a\u304f\u3066, \u3055\u3073\u3057\u3044\u30d1-\u30c6\u30a3-\u3060\u3063\u305f – With not many people coming, it was a sad party.<\/p>\n

      We already know that the te-form of verbs + \u304a\u304f means to do something as a preparation for the future. The negative of this construction, ~\u306a\u3044\u3067 + \u304a\u304f means to leave something undone for the time being or for a specific reason.
      \n  e.g., \u304a\u7236(\u3068\u3046)\u3055\u3093\u306e\u305f\u3081\u306b\u305d\u306e\u30b9\u30c6-\u30ad\u3092\u98df\u3079\u306a\u3044\u3067\u304a\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f
      \n  – I left that steak uneaten for my father (so that he could eat it).
      \n  e.g., \u6765\u6708(\u3089\u3044\u3052\u3064)\u65c5\u884c(\u308a\u3087\u3053\u3046)\u306b\u304a\u91d1\u3092\u4f7f(\u3064\u304b)\u3046\u306e\u3067,\u4eca\u6708\u306f\u3042\u307e\u308a\u4f7f\u308f\u306a\u3044\u3067\u304a\u3044\u305f
      \n  – Because I’m going to spend money on a trip next month, I didn’t spend so much this month.<\/p>\n

      Sentence-final particle \u308f<\/h3>\n

      The sentence-final particle \u308f indicates mild emphasis and is used mostly by female speakers in the Tokyo-Yokohama area. <\/p>\n

      Note<\/em>: Although the distinctions between masculine and feminine speech are less strict than they used to be, it is still more acceptable for a female to use slightly masculine speech than for a male to use feminine speech.<\/p>\n

      The conjunctive form of a verb as a coordinating structure<\/h3>\n

      The conjunctive form of a verb (\u307e\u3059 stem) can be used to connect two clauses.
      \n  e.g., \u4e00\u8543\u76ee\u306e\u89d2(\u304b\u3069)\u3092\u5de6(\u3072\u3060\u308a)\u306b\u66f2(\u307e)\u304c\u308a, \u307e\u3063\u3059\u3050\u884c\u304d\u307e\u3059
      \n  – Turn left at the first corner, and go straight. <\/p>\n

      Like the te-form of the verb, the conjunctive form is used to express sequential and contrasted actions.
      \n  e.g., \u79c1\u306f\u4eac\u90fd\u3078\u884c\u304d, \u6751\u5c71\u3055\u3093\u306f\u5927\u962a\u3078\u884c\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f
      \n  – I went to Kyoto while Ms. Murayama went to Osaka. <\/p>\n

      The conjunctive form sounds more formal than the te-form, and it is more common in writing and formal or scripted speech than in everyday conversation.<\/p>\n

      Asking for and Giving Instructions<\/h3>\n

      \u3069\u306e\u3088\u3046\u306b… – How do I …
      \n\u3069\u3046\u3084\u3063\u3066… – How do I …
      \n\u6b21(\u3064\u304e)\u306b\u3069\u3046\u3057\u307e\u3059\u304b – What do I do next?<\/p>\n

      Asking What Something is For<\/h3>\n

      \u3053\u308c\u306f\u4f55|\u306e\u305f\u3081|\u306b\u4f7f(\u3064\u304b)\u3044\u307e\u3059\u304b – What are we going to use this for?
      \n\u3053\u308c\u306f\u4f55\u306e\u305f\u3081\u306b\u3042\u308b\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304b – What is this for?<\/p>\n

      Giving Instructions<\/h3>\n

      \u3053\u3046\u3044\u3046\u3075\u3046\u306b\u3057\u307e\u3059 – Do it like this<\/p>\n

      Encouraging Words<\/h3>\n

      \u5143\u6c17(\u3052\u3093\u304d)\u3092\u51fa(\u3060)\u3057\u3066(\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044) – Keep your spirits up
      \n\u6c17\u3092\u843d(\u304a)\u3068\u3055\u306a\u3044\u3067(\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044) – Don’t be discouraged
      \n\u3057\u3063\u304b\u308a\u3084\u3063\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 – Do a good job!
      \n\u3057\u3063\u304b\u308a\u3057\u3066(\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044) – Pull yourself together.
      \n\u306a\u304b\u306a\u304b\u4e0a\u624b(\u3058\u3087\u3046\u305a)\u3067\u3059\u306d – You’re rather good.
      \n\u3060\u3093\u3060\u3093\u3058\u3087\u3046\u305a\u306b\u306a\u3063\u3066\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f\u306d – You’ve gotten better each time (gradually)
      \n\u305d\u306e\u8abf\u5b50(\u3061\u3087\u3046\u3057), \u305d\u306e\u8abf\u5b50(\u3061\u3087\u3046\u3057) – That’s the way to go.\n<\/div>\n

      \n

      \u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Book 2 – Chapter 4<\/h2>\n

      Analogy and Exemplification<\/h3>\n

      \u3088\u3046(\u306a) is a na-type adjective used in the following constructions expressing likeness or exemplification.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
      N1 \u306f N2 \u306e\u3088\u3046\u3067\u3059(\u3060)<\/td>\nN1 looks like N2; N1 is similar to N2; N1 is like N2<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      N1 \u306e\u3088\u3046\u306a N2<\/td>\nN2 that looks like N1; N2 that is like N2<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      N1 \u306f N2 \u306e\u3088\u3046\u306b V, A<\/td>\nN1 does something (V) like N2; N1 is (adjective) like N2<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      V1 \u3088\u3046\u306b V2<\/td>\n…do something (V2) like V1<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      V \u3088\u3046\u306a N<\/td>\nAn N that seems to be V-ing\/V-ed<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

      \ne.g., \u4eca\u65e5\u306f\u307e\u308b\u3067\u590f(\u306a\u3064)\u306e\u3088\u3046\u306b\u6691\u3044(\u3042\u3064\u3044)\u3067\u3059\u306d – Today is just as hot as summer <\/p>\n

      Note<\/em>: \u307e\u308b\u3067 is an adverb meaning just or completely and is used to emphasize similarity
      \n  e.g., \u753a\u7530\u3055\u3093\u304c\u3044\u3046\u3088\u3046\u306b, \u305d\u306e\u672c\u306f\u9762\u767d(\u304a\u3082\u3057\u308d)\u304b\u3063\u305f
      \n  – As Ms. Machida says, that book was interesting.<\/p>\n

      The na-adjective \u307f\u305f\u3044 (always written in hiragana) can also be used in these contexts in colloquial speech with the same meaning. Thus, …\u307f\u305f\u3044, like …\u3088\u3046, can express appearance and conjecture as well as likeness. The pattern is similar to that of \u3088\u3046, with \u307f\u305f\u3044 substituting for (\u306e)\u3088\u3046.
      \n  e.g., \u672c\u304c\u305f\u304f\u3055\u3093\u3042\u3063\u3066, \u3053\u306e\u5bb6\u306f\u56f3\u66f8\u9928(\u3068\u3057\u3087\u304b\u3093)\u307f\u305f\u3044\u3060
      \n  – This house looks like a library because there are so many books.<\/p>\n

      When you would like to describe the appearance of people and things by comparing them to something else, you can use the following constructions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
      Adjective<\/td>\n\u9854(\u304b\u304a)<\/td>\n\u3092\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b (\u3057\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      N\u306e\u3088\u3046\u306a
      \n N\u307f\u305f\u3044\u306a
      \n V\u307f\u305f\u3044\u306a
      \n V\u3088\u3046\u306a<\/td>\n      		\u30b9\u30bf\u30a4\u30eb
      \n \u5f62(\u304b\u305f\u3061)
      \n \u8272(\u3044\u308d)
      \n \u3059\u304c\u305f
      \n \u304b\u3063\u3053\u3046
      \n …..<\/td>\n      		\u304c\u3059\u308b (\u3057\u307e\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

      <\/p>\n

        \n
      • X has an [adjective] face, style, shape, color, appearance…<\/li>\n
      • X has a face, style, shape, color, appearance,…like…<\/li>\n
      • X has a face, style, shape, color, appearance that looks as if it<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

        e.g., \u305d\u306e\u8d64(\u3042\u304b)\u3061\u3083\u3093\u306e\u5507(\u304f\u3061\u3073\u308b)\u306f\u3044\u3061\u3054\u306e\u3088\u3046\u306a\u5f62(\u304b\u305f\u3061)\u3092\u3057\u3066\u3044\u3066,\u304b\u308f\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059\u306d
        \n  – That baby’s lips are shaped like a strawberry, and they are cute.
        \ne.g., \u30b5\u30f3\u30bf\u30af\u30ed-\u30b9\u307f\u305f\u3044\u306a\u304b\u3063\u3053\u3046\u3092\u3057\u3066, \u3069\u3046\u3057\u305f\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304b
        \n  – What’s going on? You’re dressed like Santa Claus.
        \ne.g., \u5916(\u305d\u3068)\u3067\u3078\u3093\u306a\u97f3(\u304a\u3068)\u304c\u3057\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059\u3088. \u898b\u3066\u304d\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044
        \n  – I’m hearing a strange sound coming from outside. Can you go check?
        \ne.g., \u3053\u3053\u306b\u7acb(\u305f)\u3064\u3068, \u5148\u751f\u306b\u306a\u3063\u305f\u3088\u3046\u306a\u6c17\u304c\u3059\u308b
        \n  – When I stand here, I feel as if I have become the teacher.<\/p>\n

        Contractions in Colloquial Speech<\/h3>\n

        Just as many English speakers say gonna instead of going to, Japanese speakers often use shortened or contracted forms. Here are some of the most common ones:<\/p>\n

          \n
        • \u3058\u3083 for \u3067\u306f – \u5b66\u751f\u3058\u3083\u306a\u3044 for \u5b66\u751f\u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044<\/li>\n
        • Verb \u3061\u3083 for verb \u3066\u306f – \u98df\u3079\u3061\u3083\u3044\u3051\u306a\u3044 for \u98df\u3079\u3066\u306f\u3044\u3051\u306a\u3044<\/li>\n
        • Verb \u3061\u3083\u3046 \/ \u3061\u3083\u3063\u305f for verb \u3066\u3057\u307e\u3046 \/ \u3066\u3057\u307e\u3063\u305f<\/li>\n
        • oun \u306b\u3083 for noun \u306b\u306f<\/li>\n
        • ~\u306a\u304d\u3083 for ~\u306a\u3051\u308c\u3070<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

          You may be tempted to use these contractions in your own speech, but they will sound strange unless you are a fairly fluent speaker.<\/p>\n

          Describing Attributes: The …\u306f…\u304c Construction<\/h3>\n

          The following construction is used to describe an essential, permanent (or quasi-permanent) attribute of people and things. This attribute must be something that distinguishes that person or thing from others of its type. <\/p>\n

          N1 \u306f N2 \u304c Adjective – N1’s N2 is\/are (adjective); As for N1, its\/his\/her N2 is (adjective)
          \n  e.g., \u6751\u5c71\u3055\u3093\u306f\u9854(\u304b\u304a)\u304c\u7d30\u9577(\u307b\u305d\u306a\u304c)\u3044 – Ms. Murayama’s face is long and narrow.<\/p>\n

          Verbs expressing abilities that are used in this construction are \u308f\u304b\u308b, \u898b\u3048\u308b, \u805e\u3053\u3048\u308b. Another group of verbs that take this construction are those expressing need and necessity, \u8981(\u3044)\u308b and \u5fc5\u8981(\u3072\u3064\u3088\u3046)\u3060.<\/p>\n

          Similarly, \u304a\u306a\u304b\u304c\u3059\u304f (to get hungry), \u306f\u304d\u6c17(\u3051)\u304c\u3059\u308b (to feel nauseated), \u76ee(\u3081)\u307e\u3044\u304c\u3059\u308b (to feel dizzy) and other health-related constructions follow this pattern.<\/p>\n

          This …\u306f…\u304c construction is also used with adjectives expressing emotions such as \u6016(\u3053\u308f)\u3044 (fearful; frightening), \u3046\u3089\u3084\u307e\u3057\u3044(envious), \u6065(\u306f)\u305a\u304b\u3057\u3044(embarrassed; ashamed), and so on.
          \n  e.g., \u79c1\u306f\u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u304c\u3046\u3089\u3084\u307e\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059\u306d – I am envious of Mr. Mimura.<\/p>\n

          When talking about a third person’s emotions, you should use forms such as \u6016(\u3053\u308f)\u304c\u308b, \u3046\u3089\u3084\u307e\u3057\u304c\u308b, \u6065\u305a\u304b\u3057\u304c\u308b, and so on. The idea is that you can’t know another person’s thoughts or emotions directly, so making direct statements about someone else’s feelings is inappropriate. These ~\u304c\u308b forms have the meaning of acts…<\/p>\n

          Finally, the …\u306f…\u304c construction is also used in sentences that single out an individual member of a set of similar items.
          \n  e.g., \u5c71\u306f, \u5bcc\u58eb(\u3075\u3058)\u5c71\u304c\u4e00\u756a\u6709\u540d(\u3086\u3046\u3081\u3044)\u3060
          \n  – As far as mountains are concerned, Mt. Fuji is the most famous.<\/p>\n

          ~\u3066\u3082<\/h3>\n

          The te-form of predicates plus the particle \u3082 is equivalent to even if<\/em>… or even though<\/em>…
          \n  e.g., \u91ce\u53e3(\u306e\u3050\u3061)\u3055\u3093\u306b\u8a71\u3057\u3066\u3082, \u308f\u304b\u3063\u3066\u304f\u308c\u307e\u305b\u3093\u3088
          \n  – Even if you talk to Mr. Noguchi, he won’t understand (your situation).
          \n  e.g., \u3042\u306e\u4eba\u306f\u30cf\u30f3\u30b5\u30e0\u3067\u3082, \u30c7-\u30c8\u3057\u305f\u304f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093
          \n  – Even if he is handsome, I don’t want to date him.
          \n  e.g., \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u304c\u53cb\u3060\u3061\u3067\u3082, \u8a31(\u3086\u308b)\u305b\u307e\u305b\u3093
          \n  – Even though Mr. Mimura is my friend, I can’t forgive him.<\/p>\n

          Talking about Appearance: …\u3088\u3046, ~\u305d\u3046, …\u3089\u3057\u3044, and …\u307f\u305f\u3044<\/h3>\n

          In addition to similarity and likeness, the na-type adjectives …\u3088\u3046 and \u307f\u305f\u3044 are used to express appearance and likelihood.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
          Noun
          \n Na-adjective Root
          \n I-adjective
          \n Verb<\/td>\n          		+ \u306e \/ \u3060\u3063\u305f
          \n + \u306a \/ \u3060\u3063\u305f
          \n Plain form +
          \n Plain form +<\/td>\n          		\n \u3088\u3046\u3060 \/ \u3088\u3046\u3067\u3059
          \n \u307f\u305f\u3044 \/ \u307f\u305f\u3044\u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \n– It seems that; it looks like; it appears that<\/em><\/p>\n

          This construction is usually used to express statements based on the speaker’s firsthand, reliable information (mostly visual info) or his or her reasonable knowledge.
          \n  e.g., \u6628\u65e5\u306e\u8a66\u9a13(\u3057\u3051\u3093)\u306f\u3084\u3055\u3057\u304b\u3063\u305f\u3088\u3046\u3067\u3059. \u307f\u3093\u306a30\u5206\u3067\u7d42(\u304a)\u308f\u308a\u307e\u3057\u305f\u304b\u3089.
          \n  – Yesterday’s exam seems to have been easy. Everyone completed it in 30 minutes.<\/p>\n

          This construction is also used to state something indirectly or without committing oneself.
          \n  e.g., \u6628\u65e5\u8a00\u3063\u305f\u3053\u3068\u304c\u6b63(\u305f\u3060)\u3057\u304b\u3063\u305f\u3088\u3046\u3067\u3059\u306d – It appears that what I said was right.<\/p>\n

          ~\u305d\u3046, which conjugates like a na-adjective, expresses how someone or something appears to the speaker. In this case, the statement is limited to directly observable things or actions. However, it is not used with adjectives that are always visual, like colors or shapes. It also expresses the speaker’s guess or conjecture and, when attached to verbs, it carries the connotation of looks as if it is about to<\/em>… Note that nouns and pronouns cannot be used in front of ~\u305d\u3046.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Na-adjective<\/td>\nRoot<\/td>\n\u305d\u3046\u3060 \/ \u305d\u3046\u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          I-adjective<\/td>\nRoot<\/td>\n\u305d\u3046\u3060 \/ \u305d\u3046\u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Verb<\/td>\nConjunctive form<\/td>\n\u305d\u3046\u3060 \/ \u305d\u3046\u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \n– It seems; it looks; it looks like; it appears; it feels like<\/em><\/p>\n

          e.g., \u3053\u306e\u3042\u305f\u308a\u306f\u4fbf\u5229(\u3079\u3093\u308a)\u305d\u3046\u3067\u3059 – This neighborhood looks convenient.<\/p>\n

          The negative of this construction is formed in the following way.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Noun \/ Na-adjective<\/td>\n\n Root + ~ \u305d\u3046\u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044 
          \n Root + \u3067\u306f + \u306a\u3055\u305d\u3046\u3067\u3059\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          I-adjective<\/td>\n\n Root + ~ \u305d\u3046\u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044
          \n Root of the negative form + \u3067\u306f + \u306a\u3055\u305d\u3046\u3067\u3059\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Verb<\/td>\nRoot + ~\u305d\u3046\u306b\u306a\u3044 \/ \u305d\u3046\u3082\u306a\u3044<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \nNote that the adjective \u3044\u3044 + \u305d\u3046 results in \u3088\u3055\u305d\u3046, looks good<\/em>. The ~\u305d\u3046 form of \u306a\u3044 is \u306a\u3055\u305d\u3046, it looks as if there \/ it isn’t<\/em>. \u306a\u3055\u305d\u3046\u3060 is the combination of the negative \u306a\u3044 + \u305d\u3046\u3060. The negative of \u3044\u3044 + \u305d\u3046\u3060 results in \u3088\u304f\u306a\u3055\u305d\u3046\u3060.
          \n  e.g., \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u306f\u307e\u3063\u305f\u304f\u6065(\u306f)\u305a\u304b\u3057\u305d\u3046\u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044 – Mr. Mimura doesn’t look embarrassed at all.
          \n  e.g., \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u306f\u307e\u3063\u305f\u304f\u6065(\u306f)\u305a\u304b\u3057\u304f\u306a\u3055\u305d\u3046\u3067\u3059 – Mr. Mimura looks completely unembarrassed.
          \n  e.g., \u3042\u306e\u304a\u5ba2(\u304d\u3083\u304f)\u3055\u3093\u306f\u5e30\u308a\u305d\u3046\u306b[\u3082]\u306a\u3044 – That guest doesn’t look as if he’s about to leave.<\/p>\n

          The adverbial form of this construction, ~\u305d\u3046\u306b, means in a manner that looks as if<\/em>…
          \n  e.g., \u60a3\u8005(\u304b\u3093\u3058\u3083)\u306f\u82e6(\u304f\u308b)\u3057\u305d\u3046\u306b\u6b69(\u3042\u308b)\u3044\u3066\u3044\u308b – The patient is walking as if in great pain.<\/p>\n

          …\u3089\u3057\u3044, which conjugates like an i-adjective, is used in the following construction to express what appears true to the speaker based on information that he or she obtained indirectly, for instance, by reading or hearing it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Noun<\/td>\nnoun + \u3060\u3063\u305f<\/td>\n+ \u3089\u3057\u3044 (\u3067\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Na-adjective<\/td>\nRoot + \u3060\u3063\u305f<\/td>\n+ \u3089\u3057\u3044 (\u3067\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          I-adjective<\/td>\nPlain form<\/td>\n+ \u3089\u3057\u3044 (\u3067\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Verb<\/td>\nPlain form<\/td>\n+ \u3089\u3057\u3044 (\u3067\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \n– I hear that; the word is that; I understand that; it says that<\/em><\/p>\n

            e.g., \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u306f\u5148\u9031\u75c5\u6c17(\u3073\u3087\u3046\u304d)\u3060\u3063\u305f\u3089\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059 – I understand that Mr. Mimura was sick last week.
          \n  e.g., \u53f0\u98a8(\u305f\u3044\u3075\u3046)\u304c\u6765\u308b\u3089\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059\u3088 – It says that a typhoon is coming.<\/p>\n

          A negative conjecture is expressed by ~ \u306a\u3044 \/ \u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f + \u3089\u3057\u3044
          \n  e.g., \u305d\u306e\u8a71(\u306f\u306a\u3057)\u306f\u672c\u5f53\u3058\u3083\u306a\u3044\u3089\u3057\u3044 – My understanding is that that story is not true.<\/p>\n

          …\u3089\u3057\u3044, preceded by a noun, can express the idea that the subject possesses those qualities considered essential and natural for his or her role or status. For example, if you say \u753a\u7530\u3055\u3093\u306f\u5973\u3089\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059, the sentence could mean either, My understanding is that Ms. Machida is a woman<\/em>, or Ms. Machida is womanly<\/em>; that is, she has those qualities that Japanese culture considers essential for women. Both \u5973\u3089\u3057\u3044 and \u7537\u3089\u3057\u3044 are common expressions in Japanese, because the culture has traditionally had very definite ideas about how men and women should act. <\/p>\n

          Note<\/em>: These ambiguous meanings are distinguished in the corresponding negative sentences.
          \n  e.g., \u753a\u7530\u3055\u3093\u306f\u5973\u3089\u3057\u304f\u306a\u3044\u4eba\u3060 – Ms. Machida is not womanly
          \n  e.g., \u753a\u7530\u3055\u3093\u306f\u5973\u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044\u3089\u3057\u3044 – It seems that Ms. Machida is not a woman
          \n  e.g., \u5c71\u53e3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u3059\u3054\u304f\u65e5\u672c\u4eba\u3089\u3057\u3044\u65e5\u672c\u4eba\u3067\u3059
          \n  – Mr. Yamaguchi is an extremely Japanese Japanese person
          \n  e.g., \u305d\u308c\u306f\u3042\u306a\u305f\u3089\u3057\u304f\u306a\u3044 – That’s not like you<\/p>\n

          The following sentences illustrate the differences between \u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046, \u3089\u3057\u3044, ~\u305d\u3046 and \u3088\u3046.
          \n  e.g., \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u306f\u5fd9(\u3044\u305d\u304c)\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046 – Mr. Mimura is probably busy.
          \n  e.g., \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u306f\u5fd9(\u3044\u305d\u304c)\u3057\u3044\u3089\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059 – I heard that Mr. Mimura is busy.
          \n  e.g., \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u306f\u5fd9(\u3044\u305d\u304c)\u3057\u305d\u3046\u3067\u3059 – Mr. Mimura looks busy.
          \n  e.g., \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u306f\u5fd9(\u3044\u305d\u304c)\u3057\u3044\u3088\u3046(or \u307f\u305f\u3044)\u3067\u3059
          \n  – It seems that Mr. Mimura is busy (because I heard he has many things to do).<\/p>\n

          Causatives<\/h3>\n

          The following sentences are called causative sentences because they refer to making or allowing another person to do something (i.e. I made him go to school<\/em>, His father let him eat ice cream for dinner<\/em>). In Japanese, sentences like these are built around the following causative verb forms.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
           <\/td>\nRule<\/td>\nExample <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Class 1 Verbs<\/td>\nRoot + a-column hiragana corresponding to the dictionary + \u305b\u308b<\/td>\n\u66f8\u304f ⇒ \u66f8\u304b\u305b\u308b
          \n \u8cb7\u3046 ⇒ \u8cb7\u308f\u305b\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Class 2 Verbs<\/td>\nRoot + \u3055\u305b\u308b<\/td>\n\u98df\u3079\u308b -> \u98df\u3079\u3055\u305b\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Class 3 Verbs<\/td>\nIrregular<\/td>\n\u6765\u308b ⇒ \u6765(\u3053)\u3055\u305b\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \nNote<\/em>: all causative forms conjugate like Class 2 verbs.<\/p>\n

          The causative construction takes different particles depending on whether the verb is an intransitive or a transitive verb.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
          N1 \u304c (\u306f)<\/td>\nN2 \u306b \/ \u3092<\/td>\n <\/td>\nCausative form of intransitive verbs<\/td>\nN1 lets\/makes N2 do<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          N1 \u304c (\u306f)<\/td>\nN2 \u306b<\/td>\nN3 \u3092<\/td>\nCausative form of transitive verbs<\/td>\nN1 lets\/makes N2 do N3<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \ne.g., \u5c71\u53e3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u3055\u3068\u307f\u3055\u3093\u3092\u5916(\u305d\u3068)\u3078\u884c\u304b\u305b\u305f – Ms. Yamaguchi made Satomi go out.
          \ne.g., \u5c71\u53e3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u3055\u3068\u307f\u3055\u3093\u306b\u5916(\u305d\u3068)\u3078\u884c\u304b\u305b\u305f – Ms. Yamaguchi let\/allowed Satomi to go out. <\/p>\n

          In the first sentence, where the particle \u3092 is used, Ms. Yamaguchi forced Satomi to go out against her will. This is usually called the coercive causative. The second sentence (1b), where \u306b is used, means that Satomi wanted to go out, and Ms. Yamaguchi permitted her to do so. Thus, when the verb is intransitive, the meaning of the sentence differs, depending on whether you use \u3092 or \u306b. On the other hand, only one type of causative sentence can be made from a sentence with a verb that is transitive.
          \n
          \ne.g., \u5c71\u53e3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u3055\u3068\u307f\u3055\u3093\u306b\u30b7\u30c1\u30e5-\u3092\u4f5c(\u3064\u304f)\u3089\u305b\u305f – Ms. Yamaguchi made\/let Satomi to make stew. <\/p>\n

          This sentence is ambiguous. You must figure out from the context whether or not Satomi wanted to cook.<\/p>\n

          In causative sentences, N1 must usually be higher in status or age than N2, but not always. When talking about having an equal or superior do something, the te-form of the verb plus \u3082\u3089\u3046 or \u3044\u305f\u3060\u304f is more appropriate.
          \n  e.g., \u6a2a\u4e95(\u3088\u3053\u3044)\u5148\u751f\u306b\u8aad(\u3088)\u3093\u3067\u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046 – Let’s have Professor Yokoi read it.<\/p>\n

          \u81ea\u5206 (\u3058\u3076\u3093) (self, own)<\/h3>\n

          \u81ea\u5206 is a reflexive pronoun – that is, it refers back to another noun – corresponding to the English myself, yourself, themselves, and so on. It usually refers to the subject, almost always a human, and allows you to avoid repeating the same noun in the sentence.
          \n  e.g., \u30c1\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u81ea\u5206\u306e\u3057\u305f\u3053\u3068\u3092\u6065(\u306f)\u305a\u304b\u3057\u304f\u601d\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b – Ms. Chin is embarrassed about what she did.<\/p>\n

          The te-form of causative verb forms + \u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 is used to ask a superior for his or her permission to do something or to offer to do something for such a person.
          \n  e.g., \u5148\u751f,\u79c1\u306b\u9ed2\u677f(\u3053\u304f\u3070\u3093)\u3092\u6d88(\u3051)\u3055\u305b\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 – Professor, please let me clean the blackboard.<\/p>\n

          When you would like to ask someone not to make you do something, use the negative te-form of causative verbs + \u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044.
          \n  e.g., \u592a(\u3075\u3068)\u308a\u307e\u3059\u304b\u3089, \u3042\u307e\u308a\u305f\u304f\u3055\u3093\u98df\u3079\u3055\u305b\u306a\u3044\u3067\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044
          \n  – I’ll get fat, so please don’t make me eat so much.<\/p>\n

          Asking for and granting permission also can be expressed by using verbs of giving and receiving.
          \n  e.g., \u5c71\u53e3\u3055\u3093\u306f\u50d5(\u307c\u304f)\u306b\u6383\u9664(\u305d\u3046\u3058)\u304d\u3092\u4f7f(\u3064\u304b)\u308f\u305b\u3066\u304f\u308c\u307e\u3057\u305f
          \n  – Ms. Yamaguchi let me use the vacuum cleaner.<\/p>\n

          Constructions Using Interrogatives<\/h3>\n

          When you would like to ask for specific information or clarification about someone or something that has been mentioned, the following construction is commonly used. This pattern is particularly useful for asking for definitions of words that you don’t understand.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          X<\/td>\n\u3068\u3044\u3046\u306e\u306f<\/td>\nInterrogatives \/ Interrogative expressions<\/td>\n([\u306e]\u3053\u3068)\u3067\u3059\u304b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          X<\/td>\n\u3063\u3066\u3044\u3046\u306e\u306f<\/td>\nInterrogatives \/ Interrogative expressions<\/td>\n([\u306e]\u3053\u3068)\u3067\u3059\u304b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          X<\/td>\n\u3068\u306f<\/td>\nInterrogatives \/ Interrogative expressions<\/td>\n([\u306e]\u3053\u3068)\u3067\u3059\u304b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          X<\/td>\n\u3063\u3066<\/td>\nInterrogatives \/ Interrogative expressions<\/td>\n([\u306e]\u3053\u3068)\u3067\u3059\u304b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \ne.g., \u300c\u30ad\u30ea\u30ad\u30ea\u75db(\u3044\u305f)\u3080\u300d\u3068\u306f\u3069\u3046\u3044\u3046\u3053\u3068\u3067\u3059\u304b – What does \u30ad\u30ea\u30ad\u30ea\u75db(\u3044\u305f)\u3080 mean?
          \ne.g., \u5927\u91ce(\u304a\u304a\u306e)\u3063\u3066\u3044\u3046\u306e\u306f\u8ab0(\u3060\u308c) – Who is Oono? (Who is this Oono person?)<\/p>\n

          An embedded question is a question placed inside another question or a statement. In Japanese, this type of sentence typically takes the following construction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
          Embedded Question<\/td>\nMain Clause<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Plain form of predicates + \u304b<\/td>\nPlain or polite form<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \ne.g., \u6628\u65e5\u3053\u3053\u306b\u6765\u305f\u306e\u306f\u8ab0(\u3060\u308c)(\u3060\u3063\u305f)\u304b\u899a(\u304a\u307c)\u3048\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059\u304b
          \n– Do you remember who the person who came here yesterday was?
          \ne.g., \u5c71\u672c\u3055\u3093\u306f\u4f55\u6642\u306b\u6765\u308b\u304b\u308f\u304b\u308a\u307e\u3059\u304b
          \n– Do you know what time Ms. Yamamoto will come?<\/p>\n

          Expressing Expectation: …\u306f\u305a<\/h3>\n

          The following construction is used to express the speaker’s expectation that something was, is, or will be true. Note that the speaker expresses his or her expectation based on reliable information or strong evidence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Noun<\/td>\nnoun + \u306e \/ \u3060\u3063\u305f<\/td>\n+ \u306f\u305a\u3060 \/ \u306f\u305a\u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Na-adjective<\/td>\nRoot + \u306a \/ \u3060\u3063\u305f<\/td>\n+ \u306f\u305a\u3060 \/ \u306f\u305a\u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          I-adjective<\/td>\nPlain form<\/td>\n+ \u306f\u305a\u3060 \/ \u306f\u305a\u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Verb<\/td>\nPlain form<\/td>\n+ \u306f\u305a\u3060 \/ \u306f\u305a\u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \n– I expect that; it is expected that; I am sure that; ought to; no wonder; is supposed to; I assume that<\/em><\/p>\n

          Note<\/em>: this construction cannot be used to express what the speaker expects to do or intends to do, although it can be used to express what someone else is expected to do. It can also express someone else’s expectation of what the speaker was expected to do. To express one’s own intentions or expectations about one’s own actions, \u3064\u3082\u308a is used.
          \n  e.g., \u4f50\u91ce(\u3055\u306e)\u3055\u3093\u306f\u30b5\u30e9\u30ea-\u30de\u30f3\u3060\u3063\u305f\u306f\u305a\u3060
          \n  – Mr. Sano is supposed to have been a salaried worker.
          \n  e.g., \u305d\u306e\u8fd1\u8fba(\u304d\u3093\u307a\u3093)\u306f\u4f4f\u5b85\u5730(\u3058\u3085\u3046\u305f\u304f\u3061)\u3060\u304b\u3089, \u9759(\u3057\u305a)\u304b\u306a\u306f\u305a\u3060
          \n  – That neighborhood is a residential area, so it ought to be quiet.
          \n  e.g., \u305d\u306e\u85ac(\u304f\u3059\u308a)\u306f\u30c9\u30a4\u30c4\u305b\u3044\u3060\u304b\u3089, \u9ad8\u3044\u306f\u305a\u3060
          \n  – Because that medicine is made in Germany, it’s natural that it’s expensive.<\/p>\n

          Note that this construction can be used when the speaker has found the reason for something.
          \n  e.g., \u3057\u3085\u3058\u3085\u3064\u306f\u6210\u529f(\u305b\u3044\u3053\u3046)\u3057\u305f\u304b\u3089,\u307e\u305f\u76ee\u304c\u898b\u3048\u308b\u306f\u305a\u3060
          \n  – The surgery was successful, so he must be able to see again.<\/p>\n

          \u306f\u305a, which is a noun, can be modified by such demonstrative pronouns as \u305d\u306e, \u3042\u3093\u306a and the like can be used to modify another noun (in this case, connected by \u306e), but it cannot be used independently.
          \n  e.g., \u3048,\u305d\u306e\u306f\u305a\u3067\u3059 – Yes, I expect so.
          \n  e.g., \u4eca\u591c(\u3053\u3093\u3084)\u98df\u3079\u308b\u306f\u305a\u306e\u304a\u3055\u3057\u307f\u306f\u3069\u3053\u3067\u3059\u304b
          \n  – Where is the sashimi that we are supposed to eat tonight?<\/p>\n

          There are two ways to make this construction negative.
          \nPlain negative sentence + \u306f\u305a\u3060 \/ \u306f\u305a\u3067\u3059
          \nPlain sentence + \u306f\u305a\u304c\u306a\u3044 \/ \u306f\u305a\u306f\u306a\u3044<\/p>\n

          Of the two, the second alternative is the stronger, carrying the connotation of, There’s no reason to suppose that<\/em>… or, It’s out of the question that<\/em>…
          \n  e.g., \u9ad8\u7530\u3055\u3093\u306f\u5165\u9662(\u306b\u3085\u3046\u3044\u3093)\u3057\u306a\u3044\u306f\u305a\u3060
          \n  – We can expect that Mr. Takada won’t be hospitalized.
          \n  e.g., \u9ad8\u7530\u3055\u3093\u304c\u5165\u9662(\u306b\u3085\u3046\u3044\u3093)\u3059\u308b\u306f\u305a\u306f\u306a\u3044
          \n  – There’s no reason to suppose that Mr. Takada will be hospitalized.<\/p>\n

          To express time (before and after the hour)<\/h3>\n

          To express minutes before the hour, you say X\u6642 X\u5206\u524d
          \nTo express minutes after the hour, you say X\u6642 X\u5206\u904e(\u3059)\u304e\n<\/div>\n

          \n

          \u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Book 2 – Chapter 5<\/h2>\n

          Greetings on Special Occasions<\/h3>\n

          \u5fa1(\u3054)\u5165\u5b66(\u306b\u3085\u3046\u304c\u304f) | \u5fa1\u51fa\u7523(\u3057\u3085\u3063\u3055\u3093) | \u5fa1\u5352\u696d(\u305d\u3064\u304e\u3087\u3046) | \u5fa1\u7d50\u5a5a(\u3051\u3063\u3053\u3093) | \u304a\u8a95\u751f\u65e5(\u305f\u3093\u3058\u3087\u3046\u3073) \u304a\u3081\u3067\u3068\u3046\u3054\u3056\u3044\u307e\u3059
          \n– Congratulation on … entering school | childbirth | graduation | getting a job | your marriage | your birthday<\/p>\n

          \u304a\u559c(\u3088\u308d\u3053)\u3073\u7533(\u3082\u3046)\u3057\u4e0a(\u3042)\u3052\u307e\u3059 – I am very happy for you
          \n\u3054\u6101\u50b7(\u3057\u3085\u3046\u3057\u3087\u3046)\u3055\u307e\u3067\u3059 – My sympathy (at your bereavement)<\/p>\n

          Describing a Change in State: …\u3088\u3046\u306b\u306a\u308b<\/h3>\n

          The verb counterpart to the construction of an adjective + \u306a\u308b is as follows:
          \nThe dictionary form of a verb + \u3088\u3046\u306b\u306a\u308b(\u306a\u308a\u307e\u3059)
          \nThe negative form of a verb + \u3088\u3046\u306b\u306a\u308b(\u306a\u308a\u307e\u3059)
          \n– get to be; get so that; become able to; reach the state of<\/em><\/p>\n

          This construction is often translated into English as start to<\/em>. However, the verb + \u3088\u3046\u306b\u306a\u308b does not denote a situation in which someone starts doing something on a single occasion. Instead it refers to the beginning of a new ability or habit or to a natural development. Here is an example of the "habit formation" use:
          \n  e.g., \u6bce\u65e5\u30a6\u30a8-\u30c8\u30c8\u30ec-\u30cb\u30f3\u30b0\u3092\u3059\u308b\u3088\u3046\u306b\u306a\u308a\u307e\u3057\u305f – I started doing weight training every day<\/p>\n

          The "ability" use requires either a potential verb or a verb such as \u308f\u304b\u308b or \u3067\u304d\u308b that contains the notion of being able to do something.
          \n  e.g., \u6599\u7406(\u308a\u3087\u3046\u308a)\u304c\u3067\u304d\u308b\u3088\u3046\u306b\u306a\u308a\u307e\u3057\u305f – I became able to cook
          \n  e.g., \u30cb\u30e5-\u30b9\u653e\u9001(\u307b\u3046\u305d\u3046)\u304c\u308f\u304b\u308b\u3088\u3046\u306b\u306a\u3063\u3066, \u3088\u304b\u3063\u305f.
          \n  – It’s good that I have become able to understand the news broadcasts.<\/p>\n

          \u308f\u304b\u308b and \u77e5(\u3057)\u308b<\/h3>\n

          While \u308f\u304b\u308b means to figure out the content of something<\/em> or to be clear or to be understandable<\/em>, \u77e5\u308b means to find out something<\/em> or to become acquainted with something or someone<\/em>. \u77e5\u308b, with its basic meaning of to find out or to become acquainted, is translated as know when it appears in its -\u3066\u3044\u308b form. You use \u77e5\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b for knowing people and being familiar with places and ideas.
          \n  e.g., \u3044\u3044\u3048, \u77e5\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093. \u3067\u3082,\u8abf(\u3057\u3089)\u3079\u308c\u3070, \u308f\u304b\u308a\u307e\u3059\u3088
          \n  – No (I don’t know). But I’ll know (lit. it will be clear) if I check it. <\/p>\n

          Both \u308f\u304b\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093 and \u77e5\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093 can be used for I don’t know, but the nuance is quite different. \u77e5\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093 can imply I don’t know and have no reason to<\/em>, so it can sound a bit rude if the question is one that you could be expected to know the answer to. That is why, when you ask a store clerk a question about the merchandise, he or she answers with \u308f\u304b\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093\u306d instead of \u77e5\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093 (The \u306d makes it clear that the meaning is I don’t know<\/em>, not I don’t understand you<\/em>). In fact, saying \u77e5\u3089\u306a\u3044 directly to another person’s face is a way of saying I disapprove of what you are doing and want nothing to do with you<\/em>. Furthermore, since \u77e5\u308b refers to finding out something that you didn’t have any reason to know, it sounds odd to use \u77e5\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093 in reference to something concerning yourself, such as your own future plans or your own wants. However, \u77e5\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093 is a perfectly acceptable response when you don’t know a person, are unfamiliar with a place or idea, or have no expertise in a certain subject area.<\/p>\n

          Adjective + \u3059\u308b<\/h3>\n

          Adjective + \u3059\u308b refers to causing something to become large, expensive, beautiful, or whatever. As with the adjective + \u306a\u308b construction, i-adjectives go into their -\u304f form, and na-adjectives and nouns go into their \u306b form: <\/p>\n

          \u9577(\u306a\u304c)\u304f\u3059\u308b – to make long
          \n\u4fbf\u5229(\u3079\u3093\u308a)\u306b\u3059\u308b – to make convenient <\/p>\n

          These constructions are sometimes ambiguous, and only the context can clear up the meaning.
          \n  e.g., \u304d\u308c\u3044\u306b\u3057\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046 – Let’s make it beautiful OR Let’s do it beautifully
          \n  e.g., \u306f\u3084\u304f\u3057\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046 – Let’s make it so that it’s fast OR Let’s do it quickly <\/p>\n

          However, not every adjective + \u306a\u308b construction has a corresponding adjective + \u3059\u308b construction. For example, you often hear things like \u98df\u3079\u305f\u304f\u306a\u308b (get to want to eat), but \u98df\u3079\u305f\u304f\u3059\u308b is not used.<\/p>\n

          Describing an Effort: … \u3088\u3046\u306b\u3059\u308b<\/h3>\n

          The dictionary or negative form of a verb + \u3088\u3046\u306b\u3059\u308b is used to express the idea of making an effort or carrying out actions to make sure that something will happen. Often the most appropriate English equivalent is be sure to<\/em>, especially in commands or requests. Unlike a verb + \u3088\u3046\u306b\u306a\u308b, a verb + \u3088\u3046\u306b\u3059\u308b may be used in talking about one-time events.
          \n  e.g., \u5bdd(\u306d)\u308b\u524d\u306b\u30b9\u30c8-\u30d6\u306a\u3069\u3092\u6d88(\u3051)\u3059\u3088\u3046\u306b\u3057\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044
          \n  – Before you go to bed, be sure to turn off the space heater and so on.
          \n  e.g., \u5927\u5207(\u305f\u3044\u305b\u3064)\u306a\u4f1a\u8b70(\u304b\u3044\u304e)\u3067\u3059\u304b\u3089,\u9045(\u304a\u304f)\u308c\u306a\u3044\u3088\u3046\u306b\u3057\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044
          \n  – Because it’s an important meeting, make an effort not to be late.
          \n  e.g., \u3069\u3046\u308a\u3087\u3046\u305f\u3061\u3068\u4ef2\u826f(\u306a\u304b\u3088)\u304f\u4ed5\u4e8b(\u3057\u3054\u3068)\u3092\u3059\u308b\u3088\u3046\u306b\u3057\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059
          \n  – I’m making sure that I work with my colleagues in a congenial manner.<\/p>\n

          \u656c\u8a9e (\u3051\u3044\u3054)<\/h3>\n

          The system of \u656c\u8a9e has many facets. First, we need to make a distinction between politeness and honorifics. The term polite form is the usual English translation of \u4e01\u5be7\u8a9e(\u3066\u3044\u306d\u3044\u3054) or \u4e01\u91cd\u8a9e(\u3066\u3044\u3061\u3087\u3046\u3054), and it refers to the use of the -\u307e\u3059 forms of verbs and the copula \u3067\u3059 as opposed to plain verbs and the copula \u3060. Because the decision whether or not to use -\u307e\u3059\/\u3067\u3059 forms depends on your relationship to the listener, it is possible to speak honorifically in plain form. For example, you could talk to a close friend or family member in the plain form about your instructor, using honorifics. On the other hand, you could talk to a stranger in the polite form about some impersonal topic, with no honorifics necessary.<\/p>\n

          Expressing Respect (1): Honorific Forms<\/h3>\n

          When you talk about actions or events related to someone superior to you, those actions or events are usually expressed by an honorific form of the verb. There are three ways to make a verb honorific. The most common and regular is \u304a + conjunctive form of the verb + \u306b\u306a\u308b(\u306a\u308a\u307e\u3059).<\/p>\n

          Class 1 \u66f8\u304f ⇒ \u304a\u66f8\u304d\u306b\u306a\u308b
          \nClass 2 \u8003(\u304b\u3093\u304c)\u3048\u308b ⇒ \u304a\u8003\u3048\u306b\u306a\u308b<\/p>\n

          Caution<\/em>: Some commonly used verbs, including \u898b\u308b, \u7740\u308b, \u3044\u308b, \u3042\u308b, \u6765\u308b and \u3059\u308b do not allow you to form their honorifics in this way.
          \n  e.g., \u4eca\u65e5\u306e\u5348\u5f8c,\u793e\u9577(\u3057\u3083\u3061\u3087\u3046)\u304c\u7686(\u307f\u306a)\u3055\u3093\u306b\u304a\u8a71\u3057\u306b\u306a\u308a\u307e\u3059
          \n  – This afternoon, the (company) president will speak to you all<\/p>\n

          There are a number of irregular honorific forms of verbs:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Dictionary Form<\/strong><\/td>\nHonorific<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u898b\u308b<\/td>\n\u3054\u89a7(\u3089\u3093)\u306b\u306a\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u884c\u304f\/\u3044\u308b \/ \u6765\u308b<\/td>\n\u3044\u3089\u3063\u3057\u3083\u308b
          \n \u304a\u3044\u3067\u306b\u306a\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u8a00(\u3044)\u3046<\/td>\n\u304a\u3063\u3057\u3083\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u98df\u3079\u308b \/ \u98f2\u3080<\/td>\n\u53ec(\u3081)\u3057\u4e0a(\u3042)\u304c\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u3059\u308b<\/td>\n\u306a\u3055\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u7740(\u304d)\u308b<\/td>\n\u304a\u53ec(\u3081)\u3057\u306b\u306a\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u304f\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n\u304f\u3060\u3055\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u6b7b(\u3057)\u306c<\/td>\n\u304a\u4ea1(\u306a)\u304f\u306a\u308a\u306b\u306a\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u77e5\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b<\/td>\n\u3054\u5b58(\u305e\u3093)\u3058\u3060<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \ne.g., \u793e\u9577(\u3057\u3083\u3061\u3087\u3046), \u3053\u306e\u66f8\u985e(\u3057\u3087\u308b\u3044)\u306f\u3054\u89a7(\u3089\u3093)\u306b\u306a\u308a\u307e\u3057\u305f\u304b
          \n  – President, did you take a look at this document?
          \ne.g., \u793e\u9577\u306f\u4eca\u65e5\u306f\u307e\u3060\u4f55\u3082\u53ec\u3057\u4e0a\u304c\u3063\u3066\u306a\u3044
          \n  – The (company) president has not eaten anything yet today.
          \ne.g., \u6a2a\u4e95\u5148\u751f,\u3082\u3046\u3054\u5b58(\u305e\u3093)\u3058\u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046\u304c, \u660e\u65e5\u30c1\u30f3\u3055\u3093\u304c\u4e2d\u56fd\u306b\u5e30\u308a\u307e\u3059
          \n  – Prof. Yokoi, you probably know this already, but Ms. Chin is going back to China tomorrow<\/p>\n

          \u3044\u3089\u3063\u3057\u3083\u308b, \u304f\u3060\u3055\u308b, \u306a\u3055\u308b, and \u304a\u3063\u3057\u3083\u308b conjugate just like class 1 verbs except that they are irregular in the conjugation of the so-called \u307e\u3059 form and the imperative form.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Dictionary Form<\/strong><\/td>\nPolite, Nonpast Affirmative<\/strong><\/td>\nImperative<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u3044\u3089\u3063\u3057\u3083\u308b<\/td>\n\u3044\u3089\u3063\u3057\u3083\u3044\u307e\u3059<\/td>\n\u3044\u3089\u3063\u3057\u3083\u3044<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u304f\u3060\u3055\u308b<\/td>\n\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044\u307e\u3059<\/td>\n\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u306a\u3055\u308b<\/td>\n\u306a\u3055\u3044\u307e\u3059<\/td>\n\u306a\u3055\u3044<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u304a\u3063\u3057\u3083\u308b<\/td>\n\u304a\u3063\u3057\u3083\u3044\u307e\u3059<\/td>\n\u304a\u3063\u3057\u3083\u3044<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \nWith certain verbs, \u304a + conjunctive form of a verb + \u3060(\u3067\u3059) also expresses an action in progress.
          \n  e.g., \u793e\u9577, \u7530\u4e2d\u3055\u3093\u304c\u304a\u3046\u305b\u3064\u5ba4(\u3057\u3064)\u3067\u304a\u5f85(\u307e)\u3061\u3067\u3059
          \n  – President, Mr. Tanaka is waiting for you at the reception room.<\/p>\n

          The honorific forms of adjectives are formed by adding the polite prefix \u304a.
          \n  e.g., \u90e8\u9577(\u3076\u3061\u3087\u3046)\u306f\u30b4\u30eb\u30d5\u304c\u304a\u4e0a\u624b(\u3058\u3087\u3046\u305a)\u3067\u3044\u3089\u3063\u3057\u3083\u3044\u307e\u3059\u306d
          \n  – Manager, you’re good at golf, aren’t you?<\/p>\n

          The polite prefix \u304a, when attached to nouns, expresses politeness, respect, or humbleness, or simply gives the sentence a refined and elegant feel, depending on the context.
          \n  e.g., \u5148\u751f\u304c\u304a\u624b\u7d19(\u3066\u304c\u307f)\u3092\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044\u307e\u3059 – My professor wrote a letter to me (respectful)
          \n  e.g., \u304a\u663c(\u3072\u308b)\u5fa1\u98ef(\u3054\u306f\u3093)\u306b\u3057\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046 – Let’s have lunch (polite, elegant) <\/p>\n

          Japanese-origin words usually take this \u304a prefix, whereas Chinese-origin words take another polite prefix, \u5fa1(\u3054). This rule applies to na-adjectives as well. But, some of the most common Chinese-origin nouns and na-adjectives take \u304a instead of \u5fa1. Some words are always used with the polite prefix \u304a or \u5fa1. In these words, the prefix is considered a part of the original words, and they are not used without the prefix. These include the following: <\/p>\n

          \u5fa1\u98ef(\u3054\u306f\u3093) (rice meal), \u304a\u306a\u304b (belly), \u304a\u304b\u305a (side dish), \u304a\u5b88(\u307e\u3082)\u308a (good luck charm), \u304a\u307f\u304f\u3058 (fortune), \u304a\u3066\u3093\u307c (tomboy)<\/p>\n

          Note<\/em>: Some na-adjectives do not take the polite prefix \u304a, such as those of foreign origin or those with negative meanings.<\/p>\n

          You already know that the copula \u3067\u3059 is a polite form of \u3060. An even more polite form is \u3067\u3054\u3056\u3044\u307e\u3059. When used in reference to a person it is humble. (The corresponding honorific form for human subjects is \u3067\u3044\u3089\u3063\u3057\u3083\u3044\u307e\u3059). Compare:
          \n\u79c1\u306f\u6797\u3067\u3054\u3056\u3044\u307e\u3059 – I am Hayashi
          \n\u304b\u3068\u3046\u5148\u751f\u3067\u3044\u3089\u3063\u3057\u3083\u3044\u307e\u3059\u304b – Is it you, Professor Katoo? <\/p>\n

          When used in reference to something nonhuman, \u3067\u3054\u3056\u3044\u307e\u3059 simply gives the whole sentence an extra feeling of politeness and formality. (\u3067\u3044\u3089\u3063\u3057\u3083\u3044\u307e\u3059 is not used in reference to nonhuman subjects at all).<\/p>\n

          Even the title \u3055\u3093 has a more polite form, \u69d8 (\u3055\u307e).<\/p>\n

          Expressing Respect (2): Humble Forms<\/h3>\n

          Humble expressions, or \u3051\u3093\u3057\u3087\u3046\u3054, express the lower status of the speaker or his or her in-group member and express respect toward a superior or out-group person. This regular form is \u304a + conjunctive form of a verb + \u3059\u308b(\u3057\u307e\u3059) \/ \u3044\u305f\u3059(\u3044\u305f\u3057\u307e\u3059). [Note<\/em>: \u3044\u305f\u3059 is more polite than \u3059\u308b]\n

          In these formations, the subject’s action generally must affect a superior in some way, usually, but not always, implying that the subject does something for the superior person’s sake.
          \n  e.g., \u793e\u9577(\u3057\u3083\u3061\u3087\u3046), \u9ad8\u7530\u3055\u3093\u3092\u304a\u547c(\u3088)\u3073\u3044\u305f\u3057\u307e\u3059 – President, I will summon Mr. Takada for you.<\/p>\n

          Some important and commonly used verbs have irregular humble forms, as follows:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          NONHUMBLE FORM<\/strong><\/td>\nIRREGULAR HUMBLE FORM<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u3044\u308b<\/td>\n\u304a\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u3059\u308b<\/td>\n\u3044\u305f\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u884c\u304f \/ \u6765\u308b<\/td>\n\u53c2(\u307e\u3044)\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u8a00(\u3044)\u3046<\/td>\n\u7533(\u3082\u3046)\u3059 \/ \u7533(\u3082\u3046)\u3057\u4e0a\u3052\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u501f(\u304b)\u308a\u308b<\/td>\n\u306f\u3044\u3057\u3083\u304f\u3059\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u4f1a(\u3042)\u3046<\/td>\n\u304a\u3081(\u3081)\u306b\u304b\u304b\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u898b\u308b<\/td>\n\u62dd\u898b(\u306f\u3044\u3051\u3093)\u3059\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u98f2\u3080 \/ \u98df\u3079\u308b \/ \u3082\u3089\u3046<\/td>\n\u3044\u305f\u3060\u304f<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u3042\u3052\u308b<\/td>\n\u5dee(\u3055)\u3057\u4e0a(\u3042)\u3052\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u77e5\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b<\/td>\n\u5b58(\u305e\u3093)\u3058\u3066\u3044\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u805e\u304f \/ \u305f\u305a\u306d\u308b (to inquire)<\/td>\n\u4f3a(\u3046\u304b\u304c)\u3046<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u898b\u305b\u308b<\/td>\n\u304a\u76ee(\u3081)\u306b\u304b\u3051\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u601d(\u304a\u3082)\u3046<\/td>\n\u5b58(\u305e\u3093)\u3058\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u305f\u305a\u306d\u308b (to visit)<\/td>\n\u4f3a(\u3046\u304b\u304c)\u3046 \/ \u304a\u3058\u3083\u307e\u3059\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \ne.g., \u3069\u3053\u304b\u3067\u4e00\u5ea6\u304a\u76ee\u306b\u304b\u304b\u3063\u305f\u3053\u3068\u304c\u3042\u308b\u3068\u5b58(\u305e\u3093)\u3058\u307e\u3059 – I think that I have met you once somewhere.
          \ne.g., \u3061\u3087\u3063\u3068\u7533\u3057\u4e0a\u3052\u305f\u3044\u3053\u3068\u304c\u3042\u308b\u306e\u3067\u3059\u304c – There’s something I want to say…
          \ne.g., \u306f\u3044,\u5b58(\u305e\u3093)\u3058\u3066\u304a\u308a\u307e\u3059 – Yes, I know.<\/p>\n

          In the case of nominal verbs, the humble form is formed with \u304a or \u5fa1 + noun plus \u3059\u308b(\u3057\u307e\u3059)\/\u3044\u305f\u3059(\u3044\u305f\u3057\u307e\u3059).
          \n  e.g., \u793e\u9577, \u4f1a\u8b70(\u304b\u3044\u304e)\u306e\u3051\u3063\u304b\u306f\u79c1\u304c\u3054\u307b\u3046\u3053\u304f\u3044\u305f\u3057\u307e\u3059
          \n  – President, I will inform everyone of the results of the conference.
          \n  e.g., \u51fa\u53e3(\u3067\u3050\u3061)\u307e\u3067\u5fa1\u6848\u5185(\u3054\u3042\u3093\u306a\u3044)\u3044\u305f\u3057\u307e\u3059
          \n  – I’ll guide you to the exit.<\/p>\n

          You can also express humbleness with expressions related to giving and receiving, particularly in cases when a superior or an out-group member clearly received a favor from you, or when you have clearly received a favor from a superior or out-group person, in which case you use + \u3044\u305f\u3060\u304f.
          \n  e.g., \u79c1\u304c\u304a\u5b22(\u3058\u3087\u3046)\u3055\u3093\u304b\u3089\u306e\u304a\u624b\u7d19(\u3066\u304c\u307f)\u3092\u8aad\u3093\u3067\u5dee(\u3055)\u3057\u4e0a(\u3042)\u3052\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046
          \n  – I will read the letter from your daughter for you.
          \n  e.g., \u5148\u751f\u306b\u305d\u306e\u8a00\u8449(\u3053\u3068\u3070)\u3092\u6f22\u5b57(\u304b\u3093\u3058)\u3067\u66f8\u3044\u3066\u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f
          \n  – I had my instructor write that word in kanji for me.<\/p>\n

          Note<\/em>: one of the most important rules of Japanese honorifics is that you should not use \u5c0a\u656c\u8a9e(\u305d\u3093\u3051\u3044\u3054) (honorific language) to talk about your in-group person while talking to an out-group person, even when the in-group person is your superior.<\/p>\n

          Passives<\/h3>\n

          The passive is formed as shown below. It conjugates like a class 2 verb.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          CLASS 1<\/strong><\/td>\nCLASS 2<\/strong><\/td>\nCLASS 3<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Root + the a-column hiragana corresponding
          to the dictionary ending + \u308c\u308b<\/td>\n          		Root + \u3089\u308c\u308b<\/td>\nIrregular<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u66f8\u304f -> \u66f8\u304b\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n\u98df\u3079\u308b -> \u98df\u3079\u3089\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n\u3059\u308b -> \u3055\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u8cb7\u3046 -> \u8cb7\u308f\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n\u898b\u308b -> \u898b\u3089\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n\u6765\u308b -> \u6765(\u3053)\u3089\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \nMany verbs that have passive forms in English do not have passive forms in Japanese. For example, there is no passive form for \u308f\u304b\u308b or \u3044\u308b.<\/p>\n

          The normal sentence pattern is:
          \nN1 \u306f\/\u304c N2 \u306b \/ \u304b\u3089 Passive verb form – N1 was V-ed by N2<\/p>\n

          Here N2 is the agent of causer of an action, while N1 is the patient or recipient of the action.
          \n  e.g., \u6797\u3055\u3093\u306f\u305d\u306e\u7537\u306b\u306a\u3050\u3089\u308c\u307e\u3057\u305f – Mr. Hayashi was beaten by that man.<\/p>\n

          When the agent is clear from the context or when the agent’s identity is unknown or of no particular interest, it does not have to be expressed.
          \n  e.g., \u3053\u306e\u5bb6\u306f17\u4e16\u7d00(\u305b\u3044\u304d)\u306b\u5efa(\u305f)\u3066\u3089\u308c\u307e\u3057\u305f – This house was built in the 17th century<\/p>\n

          Japanese uses the passive less than English, particularly if the agent is being mentioned directly. An example of the active used where English would have the passive is:
          \n  e.g., \u305d\u306e\u4e8b\u6545(\u3058\u3053)\u3067\u4e8c\u4eba\u304c\u6b7b\u4ea1(\u3057\u307c\u3046)\u3057\u307e\u3057\u305f
          \n  – Two people were killed in the accident (lit. by means of that accident, 2 people perished)<\/p>\n

          A type of passive that is common in Japanese is the adversative passive or indirect passive. The implication of this type of sentence is that something happened and the subject was adversely affected by it or was upset about it. Note that the subject doesn’t have any control over the action.
          \n  e.g., \u79c1\u306f\u3069\u308d\u307c\u3046\u306b\u30b9\u30c6\u30ec\u30aa\u3092\u3068\u3089\u308c\u307e\u3057\u305f – I had my stereo taken by a thief <\/p>\n

          Remember to use this construction only when you want to express your displeasure at what has happened. When you are pleased with another person’s action or have benefited from it, you need to use a favor construction\n<\/p><\/div>\n

          \n

          \u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Book 2 – Chapter 6<\/h2>\n

          \u3070 Conditionals<\/h3>\n

          You have already learned two constructions, ~\u305f\u3089 and …\u3068, that can correspond to the English if. The third and last one is ~\u3070, which can attach to either verbs or adjectives. Its uses overlap somewhat with those of both ~\u305f\u3089 and …\u3068, but in some ways it is more restricted than either of the other forms .
          \n  e.g., \u5927\u5b66\u306b\u3082\u3046\u5c11\u3057\u8fd1(\u3061\u304b)\u3051\u308c\u3070, \u3082\u3063\u3068\u3044\u3044\u3093\u3060\u3051\u3069
          \n  – It would be better if it were a little closer to the university.<\/p>\n

          The \u3070 conditional is formed as shown below:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Type of Word<\/strong><\/td>\nFormation<\/strong><\/td>\nExample(s)<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          CLASS 1 Verbs:<\/td>\nroot + e-column of hiragana + ~\u3070<\/td>\n\u6d17(\u3042\u3089)\u3048\u3070, \u8aad(\u3088)\u3081\u3070, \u308f\u304b\u308c\u3070, \u5f85\u3066\u3070<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          CLASS 2 Verbs:<\/td>\nroot+ ~\u308c\u3070<\/td>\n\u898b\u308c\u3070, \u98df\u3079\u308c\u3070, \u8d77(\u304a)\u304d\u308c\u3070<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          CLASS 3 Verbs:<\/td>\nchange ~\u308b to ~\u308c\u3070<\/td>\n\u3059\u308c\u3070, \u6765(\u304f)\u308c\u3070<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Copula and na-adjectives:<\/td>\nchange \u3060 or \u3067\u3059 to \u306a\u3089(\u3070) or \u3067\u3042\u308c\u3070<\/td>\n\u304d\u308c\u3044\u306a\u3089, \u304d\u308c\u3044\u3067\u3042\u308c\u3070, \u5b66\u751f\u306a\u3089, \u5b66\u751f\u3067\u3042\u308c\u3070<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          i-adjectives and negative endings:<\/td>\nroot + the e-column of hiragana + ~\u3070<\/td>\n\u5b89(\u3084\u3059)\u3051\u308c\u3070, \u3080\u305a\u304b\u3057\u3051\u308c\u3070, \u9ad8\u304f\u306a\u3051\u308c\u3070<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \nThe ~\u3070 conditional states a hypothetical condition that is necessary for the resultant clause to come about. The condition has to be something that has not yet occurred and perhaps may not occur but is still necessary for a certain result. Compare the following examples, all of which can be translated as If it snows, we can go skiing.<\/p>\n

            \n
          1. \u96ea\u304c\u964d(\u3075)\u3063\u305f\u3089\u30b9\u30ad-\u306b\u884c\u3051\u307e\u3059<\/li>\n
          2. \u96ea\u304c\u964d(\u3075)\u308b\u3068\u30b9\u30ad-\u306b\u884c\u3051\u307e\u3059<\/li>\n
          3. \u96ea\u304c\u964d(\u3075)\u308c\u3070\u30b9\u30ad-\u306b\u884c\u3051\u307e\u3059<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            Example 1 means something like, If or when it snows, we can go skiing<\/em>. Example 2 carries the connotation of, When(ever) it snows, we can go skiing<\/em>. However, Example 3 means something like, If and only if it snows, we can go skiing<\/em>. It answers the underlying question, Under what condition will we be able to go skiing?<\/p>\n

            You have already seen the negative form, ~\u306a\u3051\u308c\u3070. However, ~\u306a\u3051\u308c\u3070 used by itself carries the connotation of the English word unless<\/em>, as in the following sample sentences:
            \n  e.g., \u3042\u306e\u672c\u3092\u8aad\u307e\u306a\u3051\u308c\u3070\u308f\u304b\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093
            \n  – If you don’t read (unless you read) that book, you won’t understand.
            \n  e.g., \u3061\u3083\u3093\u3068\u308c\u3093\u3057\u3085\u3046\u3057\u306a\u3051\u308c\u3070\u5371(\u3042\u3076)\u306a\u3044\u3067\u3059\u3088
            \n  – If you don’t practice (unless you practice) properly, it’s dangerous.<\/p>\n

            Normally, the resultant clause cannot be a command, request, invitation, wish or expression of intention. If you want to say something like, If I go to Kyoto, I think I want to stay in a traditional inn, you need to use the ~\u305f\u3089 form. The exception is when the conditional clause is built around an adjective or a nonaction verb.
            \n  e.g., \u5b89(\u3084\u3059)\u3051\u308c\u3070\u8cb7\u3044\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046 – If it is cheap, let’s buy it.
            \n  e.g., \u6642\u9593\u304c\u3042\u308c\u3070\u30b7-\u30c4\u306a\u3069\u3082\u6d17(\u3042\u3089)\u3063\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 – If you have time, please wash the sheets, etc. also<\/p>\n

            The construction ~\u3070\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059 can be used to give advice about some future situation. The meaning is something like, All you have to do is<\/em>… This is similar to the ~\u305f\u3089\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059 construction, but it is usually not used to give advice about a current situation.
            \n  e.g., \u3066\u3093\u3044\u3093\u306b\u805e\u3051\u3070\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059 – All you have to do is ask a store employee
            \n  e.g., \u3055\u3068\u3046\u3092\u5165\u308c\u308c\u3070\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059 – All you have to do is add sugar<\/p>\n

            You can also express wishes and hopes using the construction ~\u3070\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059\/\u3051\u3069\/\u306e\u306b. You are literally saying that it would be good if only a certain thing would happen, but the \u304c, \u3051\u3069, or \u306e\u306b at the end indicates that this desired thing has, in fact, not happened.
            \n  e.g., \u8eca\u304c\u3042\u308c\u3070\u3044\u3044\u306e\u306b – I wish I had a car!
            \n  e.g., \u6e80\u70b9(\u307e\u3093\u3066\u3093)\u304c\u53d6(\u3068)\u308c\u308c\u3070\u3044\u3044\u3093\u3067\u304c – I wish I could get a perfect score<\/p>\n

            An idiomatic use of the ~\u3070 form is in a construction comparable to the English the more..the…<\/em> For example:
            \n  e.g., \u53e4(\u3075\u308b)\u3051\u308c\u3070\u53e4\u3044\u307b\u3069\u304a\u3082\u3057\u308d\u3044\u3067\u3059 – The older it is, the more interesting it is
            \n  e.g., \u3053\u308c\u306f\u4f7f(\u3064\u304b)\u3048\u3070\u4f7f\u3046\u307b\u3069\u6c17(\u304d)\u306b\u5165(\u3044)\u308a\u307e\u3059 – The more you use, it the more you will like it.<\/p>\n

            The irregular ~\u3070 form of the copula, \u306a\u3089, is used in a variant of the conditional construction. The pattern is verb\/adjective\/noun + \u306a\u3089. In this construction, you are taking the current situation or something that another person has said as the basis for your conjecture. It is comparable to the English, If, as you say<\/em>, … or, If it is true that<\/em>…
            \n  e.g., \u9234\u6728(\u3059\u305a\u304d)\u3055\u3093\u304c\u6765\u306a\u3044\u306a\u3089, \u79c1\u306f\u5e30\u308a\u307e\u3059
            \n  – If (as you say) Ms. Suzuki isn’t coming, I’ll go home
            \n  e.g., \u30b3\u30f3\u30d4\u30e5-\u30bf\u304c\u3053\u3057\u3087\u3046\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b\u306a\u3089, \u30bf\u30a4\u30d7\u30e9\u30a4\u30bf-\u3092\u4f7f\u3044\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046
            \n  – If (it is true that) the computer is broken, let’s use the typewriter. <\/p>\n

            This construction is similar in meaning to …\u306e\u3060\u3063\u305f\u3089.<\/p>\n

            Contrary-to-fact wishes, in which you wish that something had happened, even though it in fact did not happen, are expressed with either the ~\u3070 or the ~\u305f\u3089 form followed by \u3088\u304b\u3063\u305f. The addition of …\u306e\u3067\u3059\u304c or \u306e\u306b at the end implies that the speaker is scolding or criticizing another person for having failed to do so.
            \n  e.g., \u4e88\u7d04(\u3088\u3084\u304f)\u3059\u308c\u3070\u3088\u304b\u3063\u305f – I wish I had made a reservation
            \n  e.g., \u3082\u3063\u3068\u308c\u3093\u3057\u3085\u3046\u3057\u305f\u3089\u3088\u304b\u3063\u305f\u306e\u306b – I wish you had practiced more!
            \n  e.g., \u4f55\u304b\u8a00\u3063\u305f\u3089\u3088\u304b\u3063\u305f\u306e\u306b – I wish you had said something!<\/p>\n

            In the case of the contrary-to-fact conditionals, that is, sentences in which you say that if X had happened then Y would have happened or would happen, but in fact, neither X nor Y happened, the first clause goes into the ~\u305f\u3089 or ~\u3070 form, and the second clause goes into the past tense + \u306e\u3067\u3059\u304c construction. Like the contrary-to-fact wishes, this construction makes little sense when translated literally into English, so just learn it as a pattern and don’t try to analyze it.
            \n  e.g., \u524d\u3082\u3063\u3066\u3053\u3046\u3044\u3046\u3053\u3068\u3092\u77e5\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308c\u3070, \u5f7c(\u304b\u308c)\u3068\u306f\u3051\u3063\u3053\u3093\u3057\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304c
            \n  – If I had known these things beforehand, I wouldn’t have married him
            \n  e.g., \u3082\u3057\u3051\u3044\u3055\u3064\u304c\u65e9(\u306f\u3084)\u304f\u6765\u3066\u3044\u305f\u3089, \u7686(\u307f\u306a)\u52a9(\u305f\u3059)\u304b\u3063\u305f\u306e\u3067\u3059\u304c
            \n  – If the police had come quickly, everyone would have been rescued<\/p>\n

            Wanting to Have Something Done: ~\u3066\u307b\u3057\u3044<\/h3>\n

            The following construction can be used when stating that you would like to have someone do something for you.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
            \n (A \u306f) (B \u306b) Te-form of the verb<\/td>\n\u307b\u3057\u3044 \/ \u307b\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059
            \n \u3082\u3089\u3044\u305f\u3044 \/ \u3082\u3089\u3044\u305f\u3044\u3067\u3059
            \n \u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u305f\u3044 \/ \u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u305f\u3044\u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

            \n– A wants to have something done (by B) <\/em> <\/p>\n

            Note<\/em>: A and B are unnecessary when they are obvious from the context<\/p>\n

            e.g., \u6797\u3055\u3093\u306b\u8a71\u3057\u3066\u307b\u3057\u3044\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304b – Do you want me to talk with Mr. Hayashi?
            \ne.g., \u90f5\u4fbf\u5c40(\u3086\u3046\u3073\u3093\u304d\u3087\u304f)\u3078\u884c\u3063\u3066\u304d\u3066\u3082\u3089\u3044\u305f\u3044\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304c – I would like you to go to the post office<\/p>\n

            The combination of the te-form of the verb and \u307b\u3057\u3044 or \u3082\u3089\u3044\u305f\u3044 is used when A’s social status is equal or superior to B’s. When B’s social status is superior to A’s, \u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u305f\u3044 must be used.<\/p>\n

            When A is the third person, the te-form of the verb + \u3082\u3089\u3044\u305f\u304c\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b or \u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u305f\u304c\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b is usually used. Alternatively, you may be able to use \u3082\u3089\u3044\u305f\u3044\u305d\u3046\u3060 or \u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u305f\u3044\u305d\u3046\u3060.
            \n  e.g., \u30ab-\u30c6\u30a3\u30b9\u3055\u3093\u306f\u6797\u3055\u3093\u306b\u3053\u306e\u306f\u304c\u304d\u3092\u8aad\u3093\u3067\u3082\u3089\u3044\u305f\u304c\u3063\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059
            \n  – Mr. Curtis would like Mr. Hayashi to read this postcard.
            \n  e.g., \u5b66\u751f\u305f\u3061\u306f\u6a2a\u4e95\u5148\u751f\u306b\u3082\u30c6\u30ec\u30d3\u306b\u51fa(\u3067)\u3066\u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u305f\u3044\u305d\u3046\u3067\u3059
            \n  – The students would like Prof. Yokoi to appear on TV<\/p>\n

            When asking someone not to do something, you can use either ~\u306a\u3044\u3067\u307b\u3057\u3044(\u3067\u3059) or ~\u3066\u307b\u3057\u304f\u306a\u3044(\u3067\u3059).
            \n  e.g., \u4ed5\u4e8b(\u3057\u3054\u3068)\u4e2d(\u3061\u3085\u3046)\u306f\u79c1\u7528(\u3057\u3088\u3046)\u96fb\u8a71(\u3067\u3093\u308f)\u3092\u3057\u306a\u3044\u3067\u307b\u3057\u3044\u3067\u3059\u306d
            \n  – I want you not to make private calls during working hours<\/p>\n

            …\u3060\u3051\u3067[\u306f]\u306a\u304f<\/h3>\n

            …\u3060\u3051\u3067[\u306f]\u306a\u304f – the \u306f is optional – means not only…(but also)<\/em>. Nouns, pronouns, and the plain form of adjectives and verbs may be used before it. The clause following it often contains \u3082 also.
            \n  e.g., \u30ab\u30ef\u30e0\u30e9\u3055\u3093\u306f\u30cf\u30f3\u30b5\u30e0\u306a\u3060\u3051\u3067\u306a\u304f, \u3068\u3066\u3082\u89aa\u5207(\u3057\u3093\u305b\u3064)\u3060
            \n  – Mr. Kawamura is not only handsome, he’s very kind
            \n  e.g., \u898b\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3060\u3051\u3067\u306a\u304f, \u98df\u3079\u3066\u307f\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044
            \n  – Don’t just look at it; try eating it<\/p>\n

            In ordinary colloquial speech, \u3058\u3083\u306a\u304f\u3066 is often used instead of \u3067[\u306f]\u306a\u304f.
            \n  e.g., \u30a2\u30e1\u30ea\u30ab\u3060\u3051\u3058\u3083\u306a\u304f\u3066\u30ab\u30ca\u30c0\u3082\u884c\u304d\u305f\u3044\u3067\u3059 – I would like to go not just to America but also to Canada<\/p>\n

            …\u3059\u308b\u3053\u3068\u304c\u3042\u308b<\/h3>\n

            Using the nonpast, plain form of predicates gives you a construction meaning that you do the action occasionally.
            \n  e.g., \u30d5\u30a1-\u30b9\u30c8-\u30d5-\u30c9\u3092\u98df\u3079\u308b\u3053\u3068\u304c\u3042\u308b – I occasionally eat fast food<\/p>\n

            If you substitute \u3082 for \u304c, you are admitting that you do the action but implying that this happens only rarely. This construction is usually followed by an explanation or contradiction.
            \n  e.g., \u30d5\u30a1-\u30b9\u30c8-\u30d5-\u3092\u98df\u3079\u308b\u3053\u3068\u3082\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059\u3051\u308c\u3069\u3082, \u305f\u3044\u3066\u3044\u306f\u81ea\u5206\u3067\u6599\u7406\u3057\u307e\u3059
            \n  – There are occasions when I eat fast food, but usually I do my own cooking<\/p>\n

            In place of \u3053\u3068, you may use \u3068\u304d (time) or \u5834\u5408(\u3070\u3042\u3044) (case). The use of \u5834\u5408(\u3070\u3042\u3044) makes the resulting sentence sound formal.
            \n  e.g., \u90e8\u9577(\u3076\u3061\u3087\u3046)\u304c\u4f1a\u8b70(\u304b\u3044\u304e)\u306b\u51fa\u5e2d(\u3057\u3085\u3063\u305b\u304d)\u3059\u308b\u5834\u5408(\u3070\u3042\u3044)\u3082\u3042\u308b
            \n  – There are occasions when the department head attends meetings<\/p>\n

            When the negative form appears before \u3053\u3068, forms such as these are used
            \n  e.g., \u9031\u672b(\u3057\u3085\u3046\u307e\u3064)\u306f\u305c\u3093\u305c\u3093\u52c9\u5f37(\u3079\u3093\u304d\u3087\u3046)\u3057\u306a\u3044\u3053\u3068\u304c\u3042\u308b
            \n  – I occasionally don’t study at all on weekends.
            \n  e.g., \u3042\u306e\u5148\u751f\u306e\u8a66\u9a13(\u3057\u3051\u3093)\u306f\u3080\u305a\u304b\u3057\u304f\u306a\u3044\u3053\u3068\u304c\u306a\u3044
            \n  – There’s never a time when that professor’s tests aren’t difficult<\/p>\n

            The question form of this construction means, Does it ever happen that<\/em>…?
            \n  e.g., \u30ab\u30ef\u30e0\u30e9\u3055\u3093\u304b\u3089\u96fb\u8a71\u304c\u6765\u308b\u3053\u3068\u304c\u3042\u308b? – Do you ever get phone calls from Mr. Kawamura?<\/p>\n

            Expressing Respect (3): Honorifics<\/h3>\n

            The passive form of the verb can also be used as an honorific.
            \n  e.g., \u5148\u751f\u306f\u9ed2\u677f(\u3053\u304f\u3070\u3093)\u306b\u3054\u81ea\u5206(\u3058\u3076\u3093)\u306e\u304a\u540d\u524d(\u306a\u307e\u3048)\u3092\u66f8\u304b\u308c\u305f
            \n  – The professor wrote his\/her own name on the board.
            \n  e.g., \u793e\u9577\u306f\u3082\u3046\u3053\u306e\u30ec\u30dd-\u30c8\u3092\u8aad\u307e\u308c\u307e\u3057\u305f\u304b
            \n  – President, did you already read this report?<\/p>\n

            The degree of politeness expressed by this form is not as high as in the \u304a + verb + \u306b\u306a\u308b form or the special honorific forms introduced in Chapter 5. The ~\u3089\u308c\u308b form of a Class 2 verb is ambiguous in that it can express an honorific meaning, a passive meaning, or a potential meaning.
            \n  e.g., \u6a2a\u4e95\u5148\u751f\u306f\u3066\u3093\u3077\u3089\u3092\u98df\u3079\u3089\u308c\u307e\u3057\u305f
            \n  – Professor Yokoi ate tempura (honorific)
            \n  – Professor Yokoi had her tempura eaten (by someone else) (indirect\/adversative passive)
            \n  – Professor Yokoi could eat tempura (potential)<\/p>\n

            Causative-Passives<\/h3>\n

            The passive form of the causative form, generally called the causative-passive form, is used to express the meaning to be made to do something (by someone).<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
            CLASS<\/strong><\/td>\nFORMATION<\/strong><\/td>\nEXAMPLES<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            CLASS 1<\/td>\nRoot + the a-column of hiragana + \u305b\u3089\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n\u66f8\u304f ⇒ \u66f8\u304b\u305b\u3089\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            CLASS 2<\/td>\nRoot + \u3055\u305b\u3089\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n\u98df\u3079\u308b ⇒ \u98df\u3079\u3055\u305b\u3089\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            CLASS 3<\/td>\nIrregular<\/td>\n\u3059\u308b ⇒ \u3055\u305b\u3089\u308c\u308b;
            \n \u6765\u308b ⇒ \u6765(\u3053)\u3055\u305b\u3089\u308c\u308b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

            \nIn this construction, the person who makes someone do something is marked by \u306b, while the person who is made to do something by someone else is marked with \u306f or \u304c. <\/p>\n

            X \u306f\/\u304c Y \u306b (Z \u3092) Causative-passive plain verb form – X is caused (forced, made) by Y to do Z<\/em>
            \n  e.g., \u90e8\u9577(\u3076\u3061\u3087\u3046)\u306e\u624b\u4f1d(\u3066\u3064\u3060)\u3044\u3092\u3055\u305b\u3089\u308c\u3066\u3044\u3066, \u9045(\u304a\u305d)\u304f\u306a\u3063\u3066\u3057\u307e\u3063\u305f\u3093\u3060
            \n  – I had to (was made to) help my department head, so I ended up being late
            \n  e.g., \u5b50\u4f9b(\u3053\u3069\u3082)\u306e\u6642\u306f, \u306b\u3093\u3058\u3093\u3092\u98df\u3079\u3055\u305b\u3089\u308c\u308b\u306e\u304c\u5acc(\u3044\u3084)\u3060\u3063\u305f\u3051\u3069, \u4eca\u306f\u306b\u3093\u3058\u3093\u304c\u5927\u597d\u304d\u3067\u3059
            \n  – When I was a child, I hated being forced to eat carrots, but now I like them.<\/p>\n

            …\u307e\u307e<\/h3>\n

            \u307e\u307e is a noun expressing that a certain condition or state remains unchanged.
            \n  e.g., \u9774(\u304f\u3064)\u306e\u307e\u307e, \u5bb6\u306b\u5165\u3089\u306a\u3044\u3067\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 – Please don’t enter the house with your shoes on
            \n  e.g., \u5bd2(\u3055\u3080)\u304b\u3063\u305f\u306e\u3067, \u30b3-\u30c8\u3092\u7740(\u304d)\u305f\u307e\u307e\u3067\u3044\u307e\u3057\u305f – I kept wearing my coat because it was cold.
            \n  e.g., \u5ea7(\u3059\u308f)\u3063\u305f\u307e\u307e, \u79c1\u306e\u8a71\u3092\u805e\u3044\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 – Please listen to me while (still) seated. <\/p>\n

            Note<\/em>: \u3067\u3044\u308b in the second example above is a variant of \u3060\/\u3067\u3059 used only in reference to animate subjects and emphasizing their being in a continuous position or state.<\/p>\n

            \u307e\u307e also means exactly as it is.
            \n  e.g., \u898b\u305f\u307e\u307e\u3092\u66f8\u304d\u306a\u3055\u3044 – Write down exactly what you saw.
            \n  e.g., \u3053\u306e\u307e\u307e\u3067\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059\u3088 – It’s fine just like this.<\/p>\n

            Expressing Concession<\/h3>\n

            The ~\u3066\u3082 and \u3067\u3082 constructions are used to express dependent clauses meaning even if<\/em> or even though<\/em>.
            \n  e.g., \u5fd9(\u3044\u305d\u304c)\u3057\u304f\u3066\u3082, \u65b0\u805e(\u3057\u3093\u3076\u3093)\u306f\u6bce\u65e5\u8aad\u3080 – Even if I am busy, I read the newspaper every day.<\/p>\n

            When you would like to emphasize the meaning of concession, you can add \u305f\u3068\u3048 (even granting that<\/em>…), \u304b\u308a\u306b (just supposing<\/em>), or \u4e07(\u307e\u3093)\u304c\u4e00(\u3044\u3061) (even in the unlikely event that<\/em>…). Another way to emphasize this meaning is to use a plain predicate + \u3068\u3057\u3066\u3082.
            \n  e.g., \u4e07\u304c\u4e00\u6211\u3005(\u308f\u308c\u308f\u308c)\u306e\u8a08\u753b(\u3051\u3044\u304b\u304f)\u304c\u3046\u307e\u304f\u3044\u304b\u306a\u304f\u3066\u3082, \u8ab0(\u3060\u308c)\u306b\u3082\u3044\u3046\u306a
            \n  – In the remote event that our plan doesn’t go well, don’t tell anyone.
            \n  e.g., \u304b\u308a\u306b\u305d\u308c\u304c\u5197\u8ac7(\u3058\u3087\u3046\u3060\u3093)\u3060\u3068\u3057\u3066\u3082, \u305d\u3093\u306a\u3053\u3068\u3092\u8a00\u3063\u3066\u306f\u3044\u3051\u306a\u3044
            \n  – Even if it is a joke, don’t say such a thing.<\/p>\n

            Interrogatives can be used in this clause to express ideas such as no matter<\/em> (what, who, when, where, how, and so on).
            \n  e.g., \u8ab0\u3068\u8a71\u3057\u3066\u3082, \u307f\u3093\u306a\u304c\u30ab\u30ef\u30e0\u30e9\u3055\u3093\u306e\u3053\u3068\u3092\u307b\u3081\u308b
            \n  – No matter whom I talk with, everyone praises Mr. Kawamura.
            \n  e.g., \u4f55\u3092\u805e\u3044\u3066\u3082, \u6797\u3055\u3093\u306f\u308f\u304b\u3089\u306a\u3044\u3068\u8a00\u3046\u3060\u3051\u3060\u3063\u305f
            \n  – Whatever we asked him, Mr. Hayashi just said he didn’t know.
            \n  e.g., \u3069\u3046\u8003(\u304b\u3093\u304c)\u3048\u3066\u3082, \u305d\u306e\u8a71\u306f\u304a\u304b\u3057\u3044
            \n  – No matter how we think about it, that story is strange.
            \n  e.g., \u3044\u304f\u3089\u7df4\u7fd2(\u308c\u3093\u3057\u3085\u3046)\u3057\u3066\u3082, \u4e0a\u9054(\u3058\u3087\u3046\u305f\u3064)\u3057\u307e\u305b\u3093
            \n  – No matter how much I practice, I don’t improve.<\/p>\n

            The \u3066\u3082 form of some adjectives expressing quantity or time mean at the very<\/em>…
            \n  e.g., \u65e9\u304f\u3066\u30823\u6642\u307e\u3067\u306f\u304b\u304b\u308a\u307e\u3059
            \n  – It will take until 3:00 at the earliest.
            \n  e.g., \u9045(\u304a\u305d)\u304f\u3066\u3082\u671d9\u6642\u307e\u3067\u306b\u5bb6\u3092\u51fa\u306a\u3051\u308c\u3070\u9593(\u307e)\u306b\u5408\u308f\u306a\u3044
            \n  – We won’t make it unless we leave home by 9:00 a.m. at the latest
            \n  e.g., \u591a\u304f\u3066\u3082100\u4eba\u304f\u3089\u3044\u3057\u304b\u30d1-\u30c6\u30a3-\u306b\u6765\u306a\u3044\u3060\u308d\u3046
            \n  – At most only one hundred people will come to the party<\/p>\n

            Note that \u3051\u308c\u3069\u3082 and \u304c cannot be used with interrogatives. The \u3066\u3082 construction can express a hypothetical situation, whereas a sentence containing \u304c or \u3051\u308c\u3069\u3082 expresses only actions that have already happened or that are relativity certain to happen in the future. Compare:
            \n  e.g., \u624b\u7d19(\u3066\u304c\u307f)\u3092\u51fa\u3057\u3066\u3082, \u8fd4\u4e8b(\u3078\u3093\u3058)\u3092\u304f\u308c\u306a\u3044\u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046
            \n  – Even if I send him a letter, he probably won’t reply.
            \n  e.g., \u624b\u7d19(\u3066\u304c\u307f)\u3092\u51fa\u3057\u3066\u307f\u308b\u3051\u308c\u3069\u3082, \u8fd4\u4e8b(\u3078\u3093\u3058)\u3092\u304f\u308c\u306a\u3044\u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046
            \n  – I’ll try sending him a letter, but he probably won’t reply.<\/p>\n

            Expressing Certain Conviction: …\u306b\u3061\u304c\u3044\u306a\u3044 (\u306b\u3061\u304c\u3044-\u306a\u3044 not \u306b\u3061-\u304c-\u3044\u306a\u3044)<\/h3>\n

            The …\u306b\u3061\u304c\u3044\u306a\u3044 construction is used to express a conjecture of which the speaker is nearly certain.
            \n  e.g., \u30ab\u30ef\u30e0\u30e9\u3055\u3093\u306f\u3082\u3046\u4eca\u3054\u308d\u4e5d\u5dde(\u304d\u3085\u3046\u3057\u3085\u3046)\u306b\u7740(\u3064)\u3044\u3066\u3044\u308b\u306b\u3061\u304c\u3044\u306a\u3044
            \n  – There is no doubt that Mr. Kawamura has already arrived in Kyushu
            \n  e.g., \u30a2\u30e9\u30b9\u30ab\u306f\u3068\u3066\u3082\u5bd2(\u3055\u3080)\u304b\u3063\u305f\u306b\u3061\u304c\u3044\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093
            \n  – It must have been very cold in Alaska<\/p>\n

            The adverb \u304d\u3063\u3068 (undoubtedly; certainly<\/em>) is often used with \u306b\u3061\u304c\u3044\u306a\u3044.
            \n  e.g., \u660e\u65e5\u306f\u304d\u3063\u3068\u96e8\u304c\u964d(\u3075)\u308b\u306b\u3061\u304c\u3044\u306a\u3044 – It will rain tomorrow for sure<\/p>\n

            The degree of probability expressed by …\u306b\u3061\u304c\u3044\u306a\u3044 is stronger than that of \u3060\u308d\u3046 and \u304b\u3082\u3057\u308c\u306a\u3044.<\/p>\n

            Talking on the Phone<\/h3>\n

            One way to give a message is to state briefly what you want to tell the person, end with …\u304b\u3089 or \u306e\u3067, and follow up with \u305d\u306e\u3088\u3046\u306b\u304a\u3063\u3057\u3083\u3063\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 or \u305d\u306e\u3088\u3046\u306b\u4f1d(\u3064\u305f)\u3048\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044. <\/p>\n

            \u660e\u65e5\u306e\u4f1a\u8b70(\u304b\u3044\u304e)\u306e\u3053\u3068\u306a\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304c, \u304b\u3063\u3066\u306a\u304c\u308910\u6642\u306b\u5909\u66f4(\u3078\u3093\u3053\u3046)\u3044\u305f\u3057\u307e\u3057\u305f\u306e\u3067, \u305d\u3046\u304a\u3057\u3083\u3063\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044
            \n– It’s about tomorrow’s meeting, and even though it’s inconsiderate of us, we’ve changed it to ten o’clock, so please tell (him\/her) that.<\/p>\n

            And remember that on the phone or off, it is polite to conclude a request with \u3088\u308d\u3057\u304f\u304a\u9858(\u306d\u304c)\u3044\u3044\u305f\u3057\u307e\u3059.<\/p>\n

            \u3088\u308d\u3057\u304f<\/h3>\n

            A superior asking a subordinate to take care of something would not use \u3069\u3046\u305e\u3088\u308d\u3057\u304f\u304a\u9858\u3044\u3057\u307e\u3059 but \u3088\u308d\u3057\u304f\u983c(\u305f\u306e)\u3080\u3088 (male speaker) or \u3088\u308d\u3057\u304f\u983c\u3080\u308f\u306d (female speaker).<\/p>\n

            If the two parties are somehow taking care of or doing favors for each other, as when entering into a business relationship, then the second party replies to \u3069\u3046\u305e\u3088\u308d\u3057\u304f\u304a\u9858\u3044\u3044\u305f\u3057\u307e\u3059 with \u3053\u3061\u3089\u3053\u305d, an expression that indicates that the polite phrase applies equally to the first party.<\/p>\n

            When asking someone to give your regards to a third person, use the expression X-\u3055\u3093\u306b\u3088\u308d\u3057\u304f\u304a\u4f1d(\u3064\u305f)\u3048\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044. When speaking in informal style, you may leave off the \u304a\u4f1d(\u3064\u305f)\u3048\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044.\n<\/p><\/div>\n

            \n

            \u3088\u3046\u3053\u305d Book 2 – Chapter 7<\/h2>\n

            Decisions Made by Others: …\u3053\u3068\u306b\u306a\u308b<\/h3>\n

            The …\u3053\u3068\u306b\u306a\u308b construction is used to express the idea that something has been decided on or happens because of circumstances beyond the speaker’s control.
            \n  e.g., \u3053\u306e\u30a2\u30d1-\u30c8\u306f\u5bb6\u8cc3(\u3084\u3061\u3093)\u304c\u9ad8\u3044\u306e\u3067, \u9593\u3082\u306a\u304f\u5f15\u3063\u8d8a(\u3072\u3063\u3053)\u3059\u3053\u3068\u306b\u306a\u308b\u3067\u3057\u3087\u3046
            \n  – Because the rent for this apartment is high, we will probably have to move out soon. <\/p>\n

            When a decision was made at some time in the past and that decision is still in effect, \u306b\u306a\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b is used instead of \u306b\u306a\u308b.
            \n  e.g., \u660e\u65e5\u306e\u30af\u30e9\u30b9\u3067\u306f, \u30ab\u30ef\u30e0\u30e9\u3055\u3093\u304c\u5e73\u5b89(\u3078\u3044\u3042\u3093)\u6642\u4ee3(\u3058\u3060\u3044)\u306e\u5efa\u7bc9(\u3051\u3093\u3061\u304f)\u306b\u3064\u3044\u3066\u306f\u3063\u3074\u3087\u3046\u3059\u308b\u3053\u3068\u306b\u306a\u3063\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059
            \n  – Mr. Kawamura has to report on the architecture of the Heian era in tomorrow’s class. <\/p>\n

            Because of its time implications, \u3053\u3068\u306b\u306a\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b is sometimes used to express a custom, regularly scheduled event, rule, or expectation.
            \n  e.g., \u4e0a\u7d1a(\u3058\u3087\u3046\u304d\u3085\u3046)\u30d5\u30e9\u30f3\u30b9\u8a9e\u306e\u30af\u30e9\u30b9\u3067\u306f\u30d5\u30e9\u30f3\u30b9\u8a9e\u3057\u304b\u4f7f(\u3064\u304b)\u308f\u306a\u3044\u3053\u3068\u306b\u306a\u3063\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059
            \n  – As a rule, we use only French in our advanced French class <\/p>\n

            The \u3053\u3068\u306b\u306a\u308b construction is used when you don’t have to specify who made a decision or you would rather not mention the decision maker specifically. In contrast, the superficially similar construction of \u3053\u3068\u306b\u3059\u308b requires that you state specifically who made the decision. The distinction is similar to the distinction between We decided to leave<\/em> and It was decided that we should leave<\/em> in English.<\/p>\n

            If you use the plain, nonpast form of the verb + \u3053\u3068\u306b\u306a\u308b even when you are the decision maker, you sound humbler than when you use \u3053\u3068\u306b\u3059\u308b.
            \n  e.g., \u6765\u9031\u304b\u3089\u96a3(\u3068\u306a\u308a)\u306b\u5f15\u3063\u8d8a(\u3072\u3063\u3053)\u3057\u3066\u304f\u308b\u3053\u3068\u306b\u306a\u308a\u307e\u3057\u305f\u306e\u3067, \u3069\u3046\u305e\u3088\u308d\u3057\u304f\u304a\u9858\u3044\u3044\u305f\u3057\u307e\u3059
            \n  – It has been decided that we will be moving in next door starting next week, so please be kind to us. <\/p>\n

            Note<\/em>: the use of a \u307e\u3059\/\u3067\u3059 form before \u306e\u3067 is a feature of super polite speech.<\/p>\n

            Expressing a Speaker’s Emotional Involvement: …\u3082\u306e\u3060<\/h3>\n

            The following construction is used to express a speaker’s strong emotional involvement with an event. Depending on the exact circumstances, it can have any one of a number of English translations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
            Verb
            \n i-adjective
            \n na-adjective
            \n Noun<\/td>\n            		Plain form
            \n Plain form (dictionary form \/ ta-form)
            \n Dictionary form + \u3060 or \u3060\u3063\u305f
            \n Noun + \u306a \/ \u3060\u3063\u305f<\/td>\n            		\u3082\u306e\u3060 (\u3082\u306e\u3067\u3059)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

            \n– should; used to; because<\/em><\/p>\n

            The original meaning of \u3082\u306e is tangible or visible thing<\/em>. When used as a sentence ending, \u3082\u306e expresses an event or a situation as if it were a tangible thing or a vivid experience. Depending on context, it expresses different types of emotions, including desire, reminiscence, excuse, admonition, command, conviction, or exclamation.<\/p>\n

            The plain past form of the verb + \u3082\u306e\u3060 is used when the speaker is reminiscing about the way things used to be.
            \n  e.g., \u5b66\u751f\u306e\u6642, \u6bce\u65e5\u306e\u3088\u3046\u306b\u30d1\u30c1\u30f3\u30b3\u3092\u3084\u3063\u305f\u3082\u306e\u3067\u3059
            \n  – When I was a student, I used to play pachinko almost every day.<\/p>\n

            At other times, \u3082\u306e seems to add nothing more than emotional intensity to the statement.
            \n  e.g., \u79c1\u3082\u305d\u306e\u3084\u307e\u306b\u767b(\u306e\u307c)\u3063\u3066\u307f\u305f\u3044\u3082\u306e\u3060 – I also want to try climbing that mountain!<\/p>\n

            This construction is also used in making generalizations, particularly when the speaker is expressing a strong impression or conviction.
            \n  e.g., \u53cb\u9054(\u3068\u3082\u3060\u3061)\u306f\u3044\u3044\u3082\u306e\u3060 – A friend is a good thing (to have)<\/p>\n

            \u3082\u306e\u3060 is also used to express what one must do or should do. The negative form, \u3082\u306e\u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044, expresses what one should not do.
            \n  e.g., \u5927\u4eba(\u304a\u3068\u306a)\u3060\u3063\u305f\u3089, \u305d\u3093\u306a\u3053\u3068\u3092\u8a00\u3046\u3082\u306e\u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044
            \n  – If you are an adult, you shouldn’t say such things.<\/p>\n

            In more formal speech or writing, \u3082\u306e can be replaced with \u3079\u304d. The formal negative of \u3079\u304d\u3060 is \u3079\u304b\u3089\u305a, which is sometimes seen on signs.
            \n  e.g., \u6559\u80b2(\u304d\u3087\u3046\u3044\u304f)\u5236\u5ea6(\u305b\u3044\u3069)\u3092\u304b\u3044\u304b\u304f\u3059\u308b\u3079\u304d\u3060 – We ought to reform the educational system
            \n  e.g., \u98f2\u3080\u3079\u304b\u3089\u305a – Do not drink (sign on outdoor water faucet in park)<\/p>\n

            At times, \u3082\u306e\u3060 functions like \u304b\u3089 (because<\/em>). The difference is that \u3082\u306e\u3060 is used when the speaker is making an excuse or trying to justify an action or an opinion. \u3082\u306e\u3060 and \u304b\u3089 are sometimes used together.
            \n  e.g., \u3059\u307f\u307e\u305b\u3093\u304c, \u4eca\u65e5\u306f\u65e9\u304f\u5e30\u3089\u305b\u3066\u3044\u305f\u3060\u3051\u307e\u305b\u3093\u304b. \u5b50\u4f9b\u304c\u75c5\u6c17\u306a\u3082\u306e\u3067
            \n  – I’m sorry, but could you let me leave early today? My child is sick.<\/p>\n

            The construction \u3082\u306e\u304b is a protest against undesirable conditions or against what the speaker feels to be unreasonable expectations. It is not a very polite way to express one’s displeasure, so it should be used with caution. It can carry the meaning of the English expression, Do you expect me to<\/em>…?
            \n  e.g., \u305d\u3093\u306a\u3070\u304b\u306a\u3053\u3068\u304c\u3042\u3063\u3066\u305f\u307e\u308b\u3082\u306e\u304b – Do you expect me to put up with that kind of nonsense?<\/p>\n

            In colloquial speech, \u3082\u306e is often contracted to \u3082\u3093.
            \n  e.g., \u6614(\u3080\u304b\u3057)\u306f10\u5186\u3067\u3044\u308b\u3093\u306a\u3082\u306e\u304c\u8cb7\u3048\u305f\u3082\u3093\u3060
            \n  – In the old days, you used to be able to buy a lot of things with ten yen.<\/p>\n

            \u3053\u3068 and \u3082\u306e<\/h3>\n

            \u3053\u3068 as a noun means phenomenon, concept, act, matter, incident<\/em> – in other words, it is often translated as the English word thing<\/em>, but it always refers to something intangible and abstract, particularly if it is general or unspecified. In contrast, \u3082\u306e refers to a concrete thing or person, not an idea or action. The following sentences illustrate the difference.
            \n\u305d\u308c\u306f\u9762\u767d(\u304a\u3082\u3057\u308d)\u3044\u3053\u3068\u3060
            \n\u305d\u308c\u306f\u9762\u767d(\u304a\u3082\u3057\u308d)\u3044\u3082\u306e\u3060 <\/p>\n

            Both sentences can be translated into English as, That’s an interesting thing<\/em>, but the first one refers to an event, a situation, a piece of news, a subject of discussion, or something else intangible. The second sentence refers to a piece of artwork, a book, a new gadget, an exotic plant, or anything else that a person can see and touch.<\/p>\n

            Both… and<\/h3>\n

            English speakers sometimes have trouble with the concepts of also<\/em> or both… and<\/em> in Japanese. English grammar allows the speaker to place these elements freely in the sentence, but Japanese handles the concept of is also<\/em> or is both… and<\/em> by splitting \u3060\/\u3067\u3059 into its original components of \u3067 and \u3042\u308b\/\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059 and putting a \u3082 in between. Adjectives go into their \u304f form followed by \u3082\u3042\u308b\/\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059.
            \n  e.g., \u300c\u671d\u65e5\u300d\u306f\u30d3-\u30eb\u306e\u540d\u524d(\u306a\u307e\u3048)\u3067\u3059\u304b. – Is Asahi the name of a beer?
            \n  e.g., \u3048\u3048, \u305d\u308c\u306b\u65b0\u805e\u306e\u540d\u524d\u3067\u3082\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3059\u3088 – Yes, it’s also the name of a newspaper (grammatical<\/em>).
            \n  e.g., \u3048\u3048, \u65b0\u805e\u306e\u540d\u524d\u3082\u3067\u3059 – Yes, it’s also the name of a newspaper (ungrammatical<\/em>).<\/p>\n

            Various Uses of \u3088\u3046<\/h3>\n

            In the following construction, …\u3088\u3046\u306b is used to report the content of a request, a suggestion, or advice<\/p>\n\n\n\n
            Clause ending in the plain, nonpast form of a verb<\/td>\n\u3088\u3046\u306b<\/td>\nVerbs expressing a command, request, suggestion, advice, etc.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

            \n– to tell \/ ask \/ suggest that someone do<\/em>…<\/p>\n

              e.g., \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u306b\u56f3\u66f8\u9928\u306e\u524d\u3067\u5f85(\u307e)\u3064\u3088\u3046\u306b\u8a00\u308f\u308c\u305f
            \n  – I was told by Mr. Mimura to wait in front of the library.
            \n  e.g., \u90e8\u5c4b(\u3078\u3084)\u306e\u4e2d\u3067\u30bf\u30d0\u30b3\u3092\u5438\u308f\u306a\u3044\u3088\u3046\u306b, \u3042\u306e\u4eba\u305f\u3061\u306b\u983c(\u305f\u306e)\u307f\u307e\u3057\u3087\u3046
            \n  – Let’s ask those people not to smoke in the room<\/p>\n

            As seen in these examples, the person to whom a command or request is given is marked by the indirect object marker \u306b (note that the \u306b following \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093 in the first example is the marker of an agent in a passive sentence). This construction is called an indirect command, and it is a paraphrase of a direct quotation of a command. For example, instead of saying,
            \n\u30ab\u30ef\u30e0\u30e9\u3055\u3093\u306b, \u3059\u3050\u6a2a\u4e95\u5148\u751f\u306b\u304a\u8a71\u3057\u3059\u308b\u3088\u3046\u306b\u8a00\u3063\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044
            \n  – Please tell Mr. Kawamura to talk with Prof. Yokoi soon <\/p>\n

            you could tell the person the exact words to say:
            \n\u30ab\u30ef\u30e0\u30e9\u3055\u3093\u306b\u300c\u3059\u3050\u6a2a\u4e95\u5148\u751f\u306b\u304a\u8a71\u3057\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044\u300d\u3068\u8a00\u3063\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044
            \n  – Please say to Mr. Kawamura, "Talk to Prof. Yokoi soon." <\/p>\n

            Unless you really care about the exact words the person uses to convey your message, the indirect command is more natural.<\/p>\n

            In the following construction, …\u3088\u3046\u306b is used to express a purpose or the manner in which something is to be done.
            \nThe plain, nonpast potential form of a verb \u3088\u3046\u306b Clause
            \nThe plain, nonpast form of a potential verb \u3088\u3046\u306b Clause
            \nThe plain, nonpast, negative form of a verb \u3088\u3046\u306b Clause
            \n– so that; in such a way that<\/em><\/p>\n

              e.g., \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u304c\u4e0a\u9054(\u3058\u3087\u3046\u305f\u3064)\u3059\u308b\u3088\u3046\u306b, \u6bce\u65e5\u7df4\u7fd2(\u308c\u3093\u3057\u3085\u3046)\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b
            \n  – I’m practicing so that I can improve my Japanese.
            \n  e.g., \u307f\u3093\u306a\u306b\u805e\u3053\u3048\u308b\u3088\u3046\u306b, \u30de\u30a4\u30af\u3092\u4f7f\u3063\u3066\u8a71\u3057\u305f
            \n  – I spoke using a microphone so that everyone could hear.<\/p>\n

            Note that a purpose is also expressed by …\u305f\u3081\u306b. The difference between …\u3088\u3046\u306b and …\u305f\u3081\u306b is that the latter expresses a far stronger sense of purpose than the former. Using …\u305f\u3081\u306b indicates that the speaker believes that the action or situation described in the first clause will take place for sure.<\/p>\n

            e.g., \u4f1a\u8b70(\u304b\u3044\u304e)\u306b\u51fa\u308b\u305f\u3081\u306b, \u5927\u962a\u3078\u884c\u3063\u305f – I went to Osaka to attend the meeting
            \ne.g., \u4f1a\u8b70(\u304b\u3044\u304e)\u306b\u51fa\u308b\u3088\u3046\u306b, \u5927\u962a\u3078\u884c\u3063\u305f – (ungrammatical) <\/p>\n

            In this example, the principal objective of going to Osaka was to attend the conference, so only …\u305f\u3081\u306b is grammatical.<\/p>\n

            e.g., \u304b\u305c\u3092\u5f15(\u3072)\u304b\u306a\u3044\u3088\u3046\u306b, \u30b3-\u30c8\u3092\u304d\u305f
            \ne.g., \u304b\u305c\u3092\u5f15(\u3072)\u304b\u306a\u3044\u305f\u3081\u306b, \u30b3-\u30c8\u3092\u304d\u305f – (ungrammatical) <\/p>\n

            By wearing a coat, the speaker might somehow avoid catching a cold, but that is by no means a foolproof method of preventing illness, and the speaker might catch a cold anyway. In this case, then, …\u3088\u3046\u306b is more appropriate.<\/p>\n

            It’s All Right Not to…: ~\u306a\u304f\u3066\u3082\u3044\u3044<\/h3>\n

            The concept of it is all right not do<\/em> or one does not have to do<\/em> can be expressed with the following construction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
            Verb<\/td>\nNegative stem +<\/td>\n\u306a\u304f\u3066(\u3082)\u3044\u3044<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            i-adjective<\/td>\nRoot + \u304f<\/td>\n\u306a\u304f\u3066(\u3082)\u3044\u3044<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            Na-adjective \/ Noun<\/td>\nDictionary form \/ noun + \u3067(\u306f)<\/td>\n\u306a\u304f\u3066(\u3082)\u3044\u3044<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

            \ne.g., \u304a\u306a\u304b\u304c\u3044\u3063\u3071\u3044\u306a\u3089, \u7121\u7406(\u3080\u308a)\u3057\u3066\u98df\u3079\u306a\u304f\u3066\u3082\u3044\u3044\u3067\u3059
            \n  – If you’re full, you don’t have to force yourself to eat.
            \ne.g., \u305d\u308c\u307b\u3069\u30cf\u30f3\u30b5\u30e0\u3067\u306a\u304f\u3066\u3082\u3044\u3044\u304b\u3089, \u512a(\u3084\u3055)\u3057\u3044\u7537\u306e\u4eba\u3068\u7d50\u5a5a(\u3051\u3063\u3053\u3093)\u3057\u305f\u3044
            \n  – I want to marry a kind man, even if he’s not particularly handsome.<\/p>\n

            A meaning similar to that of ~\u306a\u304f\u3066\u3082\u3044\u3044 can be expressed by the following constructions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
            Verb, i-adjective<\/td>\nThe nonpast, plain form<\/td>\n\u5fc5\u8981(\u3072\u3064\u3088\u3046)\u306f\u306a\u3044<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            Na-adjective, noun<\/td>\nRoot\/noun + \u3067\u3042\u308b<\/td>\n\u5fc5\u8981(\u3072\u3064\u3088\u3046)\u306f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

            \n– It is not necessary to; there is no need to<\/em><\/p>\n

            e.g., \u3069\u3093\u306a\u306b\u3046\u308b\u3055\u304f\u3066\u3082\u7720(\u306d\u3080)\u308c\u307e\u3059\u304b\u3089, \u5468(\u307e\u308f)\u308a\u304c\u9759(\u3057\u305a)\u304b\u3067\u3042\u308b\u5fc5\u8981(\u3072\u3064\u3088\u3046)\u306f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093
            \n– I can fall asleep no matter how noisy it is, so it’s not necessary for my surroundings to be quiet.<\/p>\n

            This construction sounds more formal than …\u306a\u304f\u3066\u3082\u3044\u3044.
            \nNote that …\u5fc5\u8981(\u3072\u3064\u3088\u3046)\u304c\u3042\u308b means it is necessary to…
            \n  e.g., \u6211\u3005(\u308f\u308c\u308f\u308c)\u306f\u3058\u3087\u3046\u30a8\u30cd\u306b\u5354\u529b(\u304d\u3087\u3046\u308a\u3087\u304f)\u3059\u308b\u5fc5\u8981(\u3072\u3064\u3088\u3046)\u304c\u3042\u308b
            \n  – It is necessary for us to cooperate in saving energy<\/p>\n

            Another construction that expresses lack of necessity is the nonpast, plain form of the verb + \u3053\u3068\u306f\u306a\u3044 (\u3053\u3068\u306f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093).
            \n  e.g., \u3042\u3093\u306a\u5c0f\u3055\u3044\u72ac\u306a\u3093\u3066\u6016(\u3053\u308f)\u304c\u308b\u3053\u3068\u306f\u306a\u3044\u3088 – There’s no need to be afraid of a little dog like that. <\/p>\n

            Note<\/em>: the literal meaning of both \u306a\u3093\u304b and \u306a\u3093\u3066 is and so on<\/em> or and things like that<\/em>, but they can sometimes be used to express a vague contempt.<\/p>\n

            Coming to a Conclusion: …\u308f\u3051\u3060<\/h3>\n

            The noun \u308f\u3051 means reason, circumstance, or meaning<\/em>.
            \n  e.g., \u306a\u305b\u6012(\u304a\u3053)\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304b. \u308f\u3051\u3092\u805e\u304b\u305b\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044
            \n  – Why are you angry? Please tell me the reason.
            \n  e.g., \u308f\u3051\u306e\u5206(\u308f)\u304b\u3089\u306a\u3044\u3053\u3068\u3092\u8a00\u3046\u306e\u306f\u3084\u3081\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044
            \n  – Stop saying things that don’t make any sense <\/p>\n

            Note<\/em>: \u308f\u3051\u304c\u5206\u304b\u3089\u306a\u3044 is an expression meaning nonsensical<\/p>\n

            The following construction is used to express the speaker’s judgment that a certain circumstance took place as a natural consequence of something. The fact or information that the speaker used to make that judgment is explicitly expressed (S1). The information that allows the speaker to make the conclusion can be either auditory or visual. Sometimes the exact nuance is impossible to translate into English and corresponds to the tone of voice that English speakers use when they have just realized something.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
            S1<\/td>\nS2 – Plain form of verb and i-adjectives<\/td>\n\u308f\u3051\u3060\/\u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            S1<\/td>\nS2 – Root of na-adjective + \u306a \/ \u3060\u3063\u305f<\/td>\n\u308f\u3051\u3060\/\u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            S1<\/td>\nS2 – Noun + \u3068\u3044\u828b\/ \u3060\u3063\u305f<\/td>\n\u308f\u3051\u3060\/\u3067\u3059<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

            \n– It’s that; the fact is that; you could say that; so that’s why<\/em><\/p>\n

            e.g., \u8a66\u9a13(\u3057\u3051\u3093)\u304c\u3042\u3063\u305f\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304b. \u305d\u308c\u3067, \u5fb9\u591c(\u3066\u3064\u3084)\u3057\u305f\u308f\u3051\u3067\u3059\u304b.
            \n– You had a test? Is that why you pulled an all-nighter?
            \ne.g., \u5bb6\u8a08(\u304b\u3051\u3044)\u306f\u6bcd\u304c\u5168(\u3059\u3079)\u3066\u3084\u308a\u304f\u308a\u3057\u3066\u3044\u307e\u3059. \u6bcd\u306f\u6211(\u308f)\u304c\u5bb6(\u3084)\u306e\u5927\u8535(\u304a\u304a\u304f\u3089)\u5927\u81e3(\u3060\u3044\u3058\u3093)\u3068\u3044\u3046\u308f\u3051\u3067\u3059
            \n– As far as household accounts are concerned, my mother manages everything. (You could say that Mother is our finance minister.)<\/p>\n

            \u308f\u3051\u3067, the te-form of \u308f\u3051\u3060, is used in conjunction with demonstrative pronouns to form introductory phrases similar in meaning to the English for this reason<\/em> or for that reason<\/em>.
            \n  e.g., \u9014\u4e2d(\u3068\u3061\u3085\u3046)\u3067\u4ea4\u901a(\u3053\u3046\u3064\u3046)\u4e8b\u6545(\u3058\u3053)\u304c\u3042\u308a\u307e\u3057\u3066, \u305d\u3093\u306a\u308f\u3051\u3067\u9045(\u304a\u304f)\u308c\u307e\u3057\u305f
            \n  – On the way there was a traffic accident, and for that reason I was late. <\/p>\n

            Ending a sentence with the plain form of the predicate + \u3068\u3044\u3046\u308f\u3051\u3060 is another way of stating a consequence or explaining a situation. It is very similar to the …\u306e\u3060 construction.
            \n  e.g., \u3072\u307f\u3064\u306b\u3057\u3066\u304f\u308c\u3068\u8a00\u308f\u308c\u305f\u306e\u3067, \u8ab0(\u3060\u308c)\u306b\u3082\u8a00\u308f\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f\u3068\u3044\u3046\u308f\u3051\u3067\u3059
            \n  – Because I was told to keep it a secret, I didn’t tell anyone<\/p>\n

            \u308f\u3051\u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044 is used in negative sentences to focus the negation, particularly when it is necessary to negate someone else’s partially correct supposition.
            \n  e.g., \u5acc(\u304d\u3089)\u3044\u3060\u304b\u3089\u3084\u3081\u305f\u308f\u3051\u3067\u306f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093 &
            \n  ndash; It isn’t the case that I quit because I hate it
            \n  e.g., \u4e09\u6751\u3055\u3093\u306e\u8cac\u4efb(\u305b\u304d\u306b\u3093)\u3060\u3068\u8a00\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b\u308f\u3051\u3067\u306f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093
            \n  – I’m not saying that it’s Mr. Mimura’s responsibility.
            \n  e.g., \u8a00\u3044\u308f\u3051\u3092\u3059\u308b\u308f\u3051\u3067\u306f\u3042\u308a\u307e\u305b\u3093\u304c, \u304a\u91d1\u304c\u8db3(\u305f)\u308a\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f\u306e\u3067\u3059
            \n  – It’s not that I’m making excuses, but I didn’t have enough money.<\/p>\n

            The nonpast, plain form of verb + \u308f\u3051\u306b(\u306f)\u3044\u304b\u306a\u3044 means it won’t do to<\/em>…, one ought not to<\/em>…, or it wouldn’t be right to<\/em>…
            \n  e.g., \u753a\u7530\u3055\u3093\u306b\u5168\u90e8(\u305c\u3093\u3076)\u6255(\u306f\u3089)\u308f\u3059\u308f\u3051\u306b\u3044\u304b\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f
            \n  – It wasn’t right to make Ms. Machida pay for the whole thing.<\/p>\n

            Even Though: …\u306e\u306b<\/h3>\n

            \u306e\u306b expresses meanings such as in spite of the fact that<\/em>, contrary to the fact that<\/em>, even though<\/em>, and although<\/em>. The form is constructed as follows.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
            S1 – Verbs<\/td>\nPlain form<\/td>\n\u306e\u306b<\/td>\nS2<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            S1 – i-adjectives<\/td>\nPlain form<\/td>\n\u306e\u306b<\/td>\nS2<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            S1 – Na-adjectives<\/td>\nDictionary form + \u306a
            \n Dictionary form + \u3060\u3063\u305f<\/td>\n            		\u306e\u306b<\/td>\nS2<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
            S1 – Nouns<\/td>\nNoun + \u306a
            \n Noun + \u3060\u3063\u305f<\/td>\n            		\u306e\u306b<\/td>\nS2<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

            \n– Even though S1; in spite of the fact that S1; although S1; contrary to the expectation that S1<\/em><\/p>\n

            In this construction, the speaker is expressing disbelief, regret, sorrow, surprise, protest, reproach, sarcasm, or frustration that the situation is not turning out or has not turned out as expected.
            \n  e.g., \u307e\u3082\u306a\u304f\u304a\u5ba2(\u304d\u3083\u304f)\u3055\u3093\u304c\u3044\u3089\u3063\u3057\u3083\u308b\u306e\u306b, \u307e\u3060\u305d\u3093\u306a\u683c\u597d(\u304b\u3063\u3053\u3046)\u3092\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304b
            \n  – Even though the guests are coming any minute, you’re still dressed like that?
            \n  e.g., \u5f7c(\u304b\u308c)\u306b\u30d7\u30ec\u30bb\u30f3\u30c8\u3092\u3042\u3052\u305f\u306e\u306b, \u304a\u793c(\u308c\u3044)\u306e\u624b\u7d19(\u3066\u304c\u307f)\u3082\u96fb\u8a71\u3082\u306a\u3044
            \n  – In spite of the fact that I gave him a present, he neither (sends) me a thank you letter nor phones me
            \n  e.g., \u3042\u3093\u306a\u306b\u3080\u305a\u304b\u3057\u3044\u8a66\u9a13(\u3057\u3051\u3093)\u3060\u3063\u305f\u306e\u306b, \u5168\u54e1(\u305c\u3093\u3044\u3093)\u304c\u6e80\u70b9(\u307e\u3093\u3066\u3093)\u3092\u53d6(\u3068)\u3063\u305f
            \n  – Even though it was such a difficult test, everyone got a perfect score<\/p>\n

            In conversations, S2 is not often expressed when it is understandable from the context.
            \nA: \u30ab\u30ef\u30e0\u30e9\u3055\u3093, \u3046\u3061\u306b\u3044\u306a\u304b\u3063\u305f\u3088 – Mr. Kawamura wasn’t at home
            \nB: \u305b\u3063\u304b\u304f\u884c\u3063\u305f\u306e\u306b – Even though you went to all the trouble of going there?<\/p>\n

            Also, \u306e\u306b can be added to a sentence to express resentment or disappointment when a promise is broken or one’s expectations are otherwise unmet. In these cases, the English equivalent does not necessarily express the idea of even though<\/em>. In fact, the English equivalent is most often an exclamation beginning with but.
            \n  e.g., \u3042\u308c\u307b\u3069\u904a\u5712(\u3086\u3046\u3048\u3093)\u5730(\u3061)\u306b\u9023(\u3064)\u308c\u3066\u884c\u3063\u3066\u304f\u308c\u308b\u3063\u3066\u8a00\u3063\u3066\u3044\u305f\u306e\u306b
            \n  – But he kept saying that he would take us to the amusement park!<\/p>\n

            Because of the nature of the speaker’s involvement discussed here, S2 cannot be a wish, command, request, offer, statement of permission, or statement of intention. In such cases, \u3051\u308c\u3069(\u3082) is used instead of \u306e\u306b.
            \n  e.g., \u3064\u307e\u3089\u306a\u3044\u3082\u306e\u3060\u3051\u308c\u3069, \u6301(\u3082)\u3063\u3066\u3044\u3063\u3066\u304f\u3060\u3055\u3044 – It’s an insignificant thing, but please take it<\/p>\n

            \u306e\u306b is used in contrary-to-fact conditionals to express the speaker’s regret about some desirable situation that will most likely not happen or that the speaker wishes would have happened. <\/p>\n

            Conditional (…\u3068, ~\u305f\u3089, ~\u3070) \u3044\u3044 \/ \u3088\u304b\u3063\u305f + \u306e\u306b
            \n– It would be good if; I wish it would happen that; It would have been good if; I wish it would have happened that<\/em><\/p>\n

            Note<\/em>: this construction is used with the actions of people other than the speaker
            \n  e.g., 1\u65e5\u304c30\u6642\u9593(\u3042\u308c\u3070, \u3042\u3063\u305f\u3089)\u3044\u3044\u306e\u306b
            \n  – I wish there were thirty hours in a day
            \n  e.g., \u3082\u3046\u5c11\u3057\u304a\u91d1\u3092\u8caf(\u305f)\u3081\u3066(\u304a\u3044\u305f\u3089, \u304a\u3051\u3070)\u3088\u304b\u3063\u305f\u306e\u306b
            \n  – You should have saved up a little more money.<\/p>\n

            When things that the speaker did are expressed, \u306e\u306b is dropped or is replaced with …\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304c (\u3093\u3060\u304c) or …\u3093\u3067\u3059\u3051\u3069(…\u3060\u3051\u3069)
            \n  e.g., \u590f\u306e\u9593(\u3042\u3044\u3060)\u306b\u3082\u3063\u3068\u6d77(\u3046\u307f)\u306b(\u884c\u3063\u3066\u304a\u3051\u3070, \u884c\u3063\u3066\u304a\u3044\u305f\u3089)\u3088\u304b\u3063\u305f\u3093\u3067\u3059\u304c
            \n  – I should have gone to the coast more during the summer<\/p>\n

            The conditional with …\u3044\u3044\u306e\u306b is often used to give suggestions, but it should be used with caution, because it sounds a bit as if the speaker is scolding the person for doing or having done something contrary to the suggestion.
            \n  e.g., \u3082\u3063\u3068\u5fa1\u98ef(\u3054\u306f\u3093)\u3092\u98df\u3079\u305f\u3089\u3044\u3044\u306e\u306b
            \n  – You ought to eat more rice (implies the person is eating or has eaten something else)<\/p>\n

            There is also a \u306e\u306b construction that is used to express the process required to accomplish some goal. In some cases, it is easily confused with the \u306e\u306b construction meaning even though.<\/p>\n

            S1 – Nonpast, plain verb (= dictionary form) \u306e\u306b S2 – In order to do; for the purpose of doing<\/em>
            \n  e.g., \u5929\u3077\u3089\u3092\u63da(\u3042)\u3052\u308b\u306e\u306b, \u6cb9(\u3042\u3076\u3089)\u304c\u5fc5\u8981(\u3072\u3064\u3088\u3046)\u3067\u3059
            \n  – In order to deep-fry tempura, you need oil
            \n  e.g., \u6614(\u3080\u304b\u3057)\u306f\u30a2\u30e1\u30ea\u30ab\u306b\u884c\u304f\u306e\u306b, \u8239(\u3075\u306d)\u30673\u30f5\u6708\u304b\u304b\u308a\u307e\u3057\u305f
            \n  – In the old days it took three months by ship to go to America<\/p>\n

            Having a Discussion – Useful Expressions<\/h3>\n